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Freemasonry is a
fraternal organisation that traces its origins to the local fraternities of
stonemasons,
which from the end of the fourteenth century regulated the
qualifications of masons and their interaction with authorities and
clients. The degrees of freemasonry, its gradal system, retain the three
grades of medieval craft
guilds,
those of Apprentice, journeyman or fellow (now called Fellowcraft), and
Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by craft, or blue lodge
Freemasonry. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and
jurisdiction, and are now administered by different bodies than the
craft degrees.
The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the
lodge.
The lodges are usually supervised and governed at the regional level
(usually coterminous with either a state, province, or national border)
by a
Grand Lodge
or Grand Orient. There is no international, world-wide Grand Lodge that
supervises all of Freemasonry. Each Grand Lodge is independent, and
they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate.
Organisation, structure and beliefs
Masonic Lodge
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Main article:
Masonic Lodge
The
Masonic Lodge
is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. The lodge meets
regularly to conduct the usual formal business of any small organisation
(pay bills, organise social and charitable events, elect new members,
etc.). In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to
confer a
Masonic degree[1] or receive a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic history or ritual.
[2] At the conclusion of the meeting, the lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or
festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song.
[3]
The bulk of
Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies. Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively
initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a separate ceremony, they will be
passed to the degree of Fellowcraft, and finally they will be
raised
to the degree of Master Mason. In all of these ceremonies, the
candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs and grips peculiar to his
new rank.
[4] Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master and officers of the lodge.
[1] In some jurisdictions
Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, with its own secrets to distinguish its members.
[5]
In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner
ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of
the lodge.
[6]
Most lodges have some sort of social calendar, allowing Masons and their partners to meet in a less ritualised environment.
[7]
Often coupled with these events is the obligation placed on every Mason
to contribute to charity. This occurs at both lodge and Grand Lodge
level. Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to
disaster relief.
[8][9]
These private local lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a
Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these. There
also exist specialist lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything
from sport to Masonic research. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a
Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees,
administered separately from the craft, or "blue lodge" degrees
described here, but having a similar format to their meetings.
[10]
There is very little consistency in Freemasonry. Because each Masonic
jurisdiction is independent, each sets its own procedures. The wording
of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting
room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
[10][11]
The
officers of the lodge are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a secretary and a treasurer. There is also a
Tyler, or outer guard, who is always present outside the door of a working lodge. Other offices vary between jurisdictions.
[10]
Each Masonic lodge exists and operates according to a set of ancient principles known as the
Landmarks of Freemasonry. These principles have thus far eluded any universally accepted definition.
[12]
Ritual and symbolism
Freemasonry describes itself as a
beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols.
[13] The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the manual tools of stonemasons - the
square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the
trowel,
among others. A moral lesson is attached to each of these tools,
although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the
symbolism is taught and explored through ritual.
[10]
All Freemasons begin their journey in the "craft" by being progressively
initiated, passed and
raised
into the three degrees of craft, or blue lodge Masonry. During these
three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the meanings of the
lodge symbols, and entrusted with grips, signs and words to signify to
other Masons that he has been so initiated. The initiations are part
allegory and part lecture, and revolve around the construction of the
Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of his chief architect,
Hiram Abiff. The degrees are those of
Entered apprentice, Fellowcraft and
Master Mason.
While many different versions of these rituals exist, with two
different lodge layouts and versions of the Hiram myth, each version is
recognisable to any Freemason from any jurisdiction.
[10]
In some jurisdictions the main themes of each degree are illustrated by
tracing boards.
These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge
according to which degree is being worked, and are explained to the
candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.
[14]
The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal definition of a
brother
as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly,
Masons swear at each degree to keep the contents of that degree secret,
and to support and protect their brethren unless they have broken the
law.
[15] In most lodges the oath or obligation is taken on a
Volume of Sacred Law,
whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious
beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the
Anglo-American tradition). In
Progressive continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand lodges.
[16]
Organisations of lodges
Main article:
Grand Lodge and
Grand Orients are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state, or geographical area (termed a
jurisdiction).
There is no single overarching governing body that presides over
worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions
depend solely on mutual recognition.
[17][18]
Freemasonry, as it exists in various forms all over the world, has a membership estimated by the
United Grand Lodge of England at around six million worldwide.
[1] The fraternity is administratively organised into independent
Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or
constituent) Lodges. The largest single jurisdiction, in terms of membership, is the
United Grand Lodge of England (with a membership estimated at around a quarter million). The
Grand Lodge of Scotland and
Grand Lodge of Ireland (taken together) have approximately 150,000 members.
[1] In the United States total membership is just under two million.
[19]
Recognition, amity and regularity
Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of
Recognition. Each Grand Lodge maintains a list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises.
[20] When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be
in amity,
and the brethren of each may visit each other's lodges and interact
Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is
not allowed. There are many reasons why one Grand Lodge will withhold
or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are
Exclusive Jurisdiction and
Regularity.
[21]
Exclusive Jurisdiction
Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby only one Grand Lodge will
be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim
jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to
choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same
one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two
rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other
Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.
[22])
Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two over-lapping Grand
Lodges are themselves in Amity and agree to share jurisdiction (for
example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in Amity with the
Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive
Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both).
[23]
Regularity
Regularity is a concept based on adherence to
Masonic Landmarks,
the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft.
Each Grand Lodge sets its own definition of what these landmarks are,
and thus what is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do
not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges). Essentially, every Grand
Lodge will hold that
its landmarks (its requirements, tenets and
rituals) are Regular, and judge other Grand Lodges based on those. If
the differences are significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other
"Irregular" and withdraw or withhold recognition.
[24][25]
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based on Regularity)
are those given by the United Grand Lodge of England in 1929:
- The Grand Lodge should be established by an existing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular lodges.
- A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a condition of membership.
- Initiates should take their vows on that scripture.
- Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists with mixed lodges.
- The Grand Lodge has complete control over the first three degrees, and is not subject to another body.
- All lodges shall display a volume of scripture with the square and compasses while in session.
- There is no discussion of politics or religion.
- "Antient landmarks, customs and usages" observed.[26]
Other degrees, orders and bodies
Blue lodge Freemasonry offers only three traditional degrees, and in
most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master. Master Masons
are also able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further
degrees, in appendant bodies approved by their own Grand Lodge.
[27]
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees
(including the three blue lodge degrees) administered by a local or
national Supreme Council. This system is popular in North America and in
Continental Europe. The York Rite, with a similar range, administers
three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Masonry and
Knights Templar.
[28]
In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. Freemasons are
encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, which is linked to Mark Masonry
in Scotland and Ireland, but separate in England. Templar and Cryptic
Masonry also exist.
[29]
In the
Nordic countries the
Swedish Rite is dominant; a variation of it is also used in parts of
Germany.
Joining a lodge
Candidates for Freemasonry will have met most active members of the
lodge they are joining before they are initiated. The process varies
between jurisdictions, but the candidate will typically have been
introduced by a friend at a lodge social function, or at some form of
open evening in the lodge. In modern times, interested people often
track down a local lodge through the Internet. The onus is on candidates
to ask to join; while candidates may be encouraged to ask, they are
never invited. Once the initial inquiry is made, an interview usually
follows to determine the candidate's suitability. If the candidate
decides to proceed from here, the lodge is balloted before he can be
accepted.
[30]
The absolute minimum requirement of any body of Freemasons is that
the candidate must be free, and considered to be of good character.
[31]
There is usually an age requirement, varying greatly between Grand
Lodges, and (in some jurisdictions) capable of being overridden by a
dispensation from the Grand Lodge. The underlying assumption is that the
candidate should be a mature adult.
[30]
In addition, most Grand Lodges require the candidate to declare a belief in a
Supreme Being.
In a few cases, the candidate may be required to be of a specific
religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia (known as
the
Swedish Rite), for example, accepts only Christians.
[32] At the other end of the spectrum, "Liberal" or
Continental Freemasonry, exemplified by the
Grand Orient de France, does not require a declaration of belief in any deity, and accepts atheists (a cause of discord with the rest of Freemasonry).
[33][34]
During the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is expected to swear
(usually on a volume of sacred text appropriate to his personal
religious faith) to fulfil certain obligations as a Mason. In the course
of three degrees, new masons will promise to keep the secrets of their
degree from lower degrees and outsiders, and to support a fellow Mason
in distress (as far as practicality and the law permit).
[10]
There is instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole,
Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most
satisfying. Some will further explore the ritual and symbolism of the
craft, others will focus their involvement on the social side of the
lodge, while still others will concentrate on the charitable functions
of the lodge.
[35][36]
History
Origins
Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought
the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as
the
Old Charges, dating from the
Regius Poem in about 1425
[37]
to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a
lodge of operative masons, they relate a mythologised history of the
craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of
fidelity are to be taken on joining.
[38] The fifteenth century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.
[39]
There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations
became today's Masonic lodges, but the earliest rituals and passwords
known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th-18th centuries,
show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by
accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice
the physical craft came to be known.
[40] The minutes of the
Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No. 1 in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative lodge.
[41] It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic lodge in the world.
[42]
View of room at the Masonic Hall,
Bury St Edmunds,
Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation
The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster (later called the
Grand Lodge of England
(GLE)), was founded on 24 June 1717, when four existing London lodges
met for a joint dinner. Many English Lodges joined the new regulatory
body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion.
However, many lodges could not endorse changes which some lodges of the
GLE made to the ritual (they came to be known as the Moderns), and a few
of these formed a rival Grand Lodge on 17 July 1751, which is now known
as the "
Antient Grand Lodge of England."
These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Moderns promised to
return to the ancient ritual. They united on 25 November 1813 to form
the
United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE).
[43][44]
The
Grand Lodge of Ireland and the
Grand Lodge of Scotland
were formed in 1725 and 1736 respectively, although neither persuaded
all of the existing lodges in their countries to join for many years.
[45][46]
North America
The earliest known American lodges were in Pennsylvania. The
Collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending
lodges there in 1715, two years before the formation of the first Grand
Lodge in London. The
Premier Grand Lodge of England appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania.
[47] Other lodges in the colony obtained authorisations from the later
Antient Grand Lodge of England, the
Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the
Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.
[48][49]
Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge,
applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were
confident of their own survival.
[50]
After the
American Revolution,
independent U.S. Grand Lodges formed themselves within each state. Some
thought was briefly given to organising an overarching "Grand Lodge of
the United States," with
George Washington
(who was a member of a Virginian lodge) as the first Grand Master, but
the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to
diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.
[51]
Prince Hall Freemasonry
Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit
African-Americans. In 1775, an African-American named
Prince Hall,
[52] along with fourteen other African-Americans, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the
Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in
Boston.
When the military Lodge left North America, those fifteen men were
given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In
1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge
of England (GLE) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the UGLE was
formed in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls –
due largely to the
War of 1812.
Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S.
Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number
1 – and became a
de facto "Grand Lodge" (this Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of
Africa). As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.
[53]
Widespread
segregation
in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for
African-Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions –
and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel
U.S. Masonic authorities. By the 1980s such discrimination was a thing
of the past, and today most U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince
Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working
towards full recognition.
[54] The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges.
[55] While celebrating their heritage as lodges of black Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.
[56]
Emergence of Continental Freemasonry
Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745
English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of
expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French
lodges which still follow the ritual of the
Moderns.
From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental
Europe during the course of the 18th century. The Grand Loge de France
formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised
only nominal authority. His successor, the
Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Briefly eclipsed during the
French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century.
[57]
Schism
The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was
abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the
United Grand Lodge of England
in 1813. However the two jurisdictions continued in amity (mutual
recognition) until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly
permanent wedge between them. In 1868 the
Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana
appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana,
recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by the older body
as an invasion of their jurisdiction. The new Scottish rite body
admitted blacks, and the resolution of the Grand Orient the following
year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from
Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it
persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.
[58]
A dispute during the
Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875
prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a
Protestant pastor which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a
religion, it should not require a religious belief. The new
constitutions read, "Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience
and human solidarity", the existence of God and the immortality of the
soul being struck out. It is possible that the immediate objections of
the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the
political tension between France and Britain at the time. The result was
the withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France by the
United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that continues today.
[34]
Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording. In 1894, lodges
favouring the compulsory recognition of the Great Architect of the
Universe formed the
Grande Loge de France.
[59]
In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England recognised a new Grand Lodge
of Regular Freemasons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to
Anglo-American Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a deity.
[60]
There are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, which extend into the rest of Continental Europe:-
- Liberal (also adogmatic or progressive) - Principles of liberty of
conscience, and laicity, particularly the separation of the Church and
State.[61]
- Traditional - Old French ritual with a requirement for a belief in a supreme being.[62] (This strand is typified by the Grande Loge de France).
- Regular - Standard Anglo-American ritual, mandatory belief in Supreme being.[63]
The term
Continental Freemasonry
was used in Mackey's 1873 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry to "designate the
Lodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many usages which have
either been abandoned by, or never were observed in, the Lodges of
England, Ireland, and Scotland, as well as the United States of
America".
[64] Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal jurisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.
[65]
The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental)
strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition. For the
Continental lodges, however, having a different approach to Freemasonry
was not a reason for severing masonic ties. In 1961, an umbrella
organisation,
Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg
(CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these
Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide. Included in the list of over
70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of
the above categories, including mixed and women's organisations. The
United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these
jurisdictions, and expects its allies to follow suit. This creates the
distinction between Anglo-American and Continental Freemasonry.
[66][67]
Freemasonry and women
The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of mediaeval
masons remains uncertain. The principle of "femme sole" allowed a widow
to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local
variations, ranging from full membership of a trade body to limited
trade by deputation to approved members of that body.
[68] In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.
[69]
At the dawn of the
Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s,
James Anderson composed the
first printed constitutions for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.
[70] As Freemasonry spread, continental masons began to include their ladies in
Lodges of Adoption,
which worked three degrees with the same names as the men's but
different content. The French officially abandoned the experiment in the
early 19th century.
[71][72]
Later organisations with a similar aim emerged in the United States,
but distinguished the names of the degrees from those of male masonry.
[73]
Maria Deraismes
was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her
lodge to rejoin their Grand Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance
from any masonic governing body, she and
Georges Martin started a mixed masonic lodge that actually worked masonic ritual.
[74] Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the English speaking world.
[75]
Disagreements over ritual led to the formation of exclusively female
bodies of Freemasons in England, which spread to other countries.
Meanwhile, the French had re-invented Adoption as an all-female lodge in
1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. The lodges, however,
continued to meet, which gave rise, in 1959, to a body of women
practising continental Freemasonry.
[72]
In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry
amongst women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the
emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the
33rd degree of the
Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite.
[76]
The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999
recognising the two women's grand lodges there to be regular in all but
the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular,
they were part of Freemasonry "in general".
[1][77] The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.
[78]
Anti-Masonry
Main article:
Anti-Masonry (alternatively called
Anti-Freemasonry) has been defined as "opposition to Freemasonry",
[79][80]
but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry
consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often
incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form.
Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and
conspiracy theorists.
There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century. These often lack context,
[81] may be outdated for various reasons,
[82] or could be outright
hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the
Taxil hoax.
[83]
These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of
Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on
suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition
that arose after the "
Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave rise to the term "
Anti-Masonry," which is still in use today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.
[84]
Religious opposition
Freemasonry has attracted criticism from
theocratic states and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or supposed
heterodoxy within the fraternity itself, and has long been the target of
conspiracy theories, which assert Freemasonry to be an
occult and evil power.
[85]
Christianity and Freemasonry
Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain
Christian denominations have had high profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons.
The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the
Roman Catholic Church. The objections raised by the Roman Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic
deistic religion which is in conflict with Church
doctrine.
[86] A number of Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry. The first was
Pope Clement XII's In eminenti apostolatus, 28 April 1738; the most recent was
Pope Leo XIII's
Ab apostolici, 15 October 1890. The 1917
Code of Canon Law explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic
excommunication, and banned books favouring Freemasonry.
[87]
In 1983, the Church issued a new Code of
Canon Law. Unlike its predecessor, it did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the
secret societies
it condemns. It states: "A person who joins an association which plots
against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who
promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with
an
interdict."
This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and
Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may
have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of
Vatican II.
[88] However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later
Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a
Declaration on Masonic Associations,
which states: "... the Church’s negative judgment in regard to Masonic
association remains unchanged since their principles have always been
considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore
membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic
associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive
Holy Communion."
Thus, from a Catholic perspective, there is still a ban on Catholics
joining Masonic Lodges. For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to
Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with
UGLE deny the Church's claims. The UGLE now states that "Freemasonry
does not seek to replace a Mason’s religion or provide a substitute for
it."
[1]
In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism,
Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of
mysticism,
occultism, and even
Satanism.
[89] Masonic scholar
Albert Pike
is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as
an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.
[90]
However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for
Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general. His
writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore an
opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th
century Southern Freemasonry of the USA. Notably, his book carries in
the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice
has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.
[91]
Free Methodist Church founder
B.T. Roberts
was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. Roberts
opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, "The god of the lodge
is not the God of the Bible." Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "
mystery"
or "alternate" religion and encouraged his church not to support
ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of
the "frees" upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.
[92]
Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the
Church of England have been Freemasons, such as
Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher.
[93]
In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any
incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and
practicing Freemasonry. In recent decades, however, reservations about
Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the
increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church. The former
Archbishop of Canterbury,
Dr Rowan Williams,
appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, whilst
being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside
the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to
British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible
with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons
to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth.
[94]
In 1933, the
Orthodox Church of Greece officially declared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of
apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the
Eucharist.
This has been generally affirmed throughout the whole Orthodox Church.
The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Roman Catholic
and Protestant versions: "Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with
Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching
in mystery and secret and deifying rationalism."
[95]
Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims,
beyond the often repeated statement that those Grand Lodges in amity
with UGLE explicitly adhere to the principle that "Freemasonry is not a
religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic
deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in
Freemasonry."
[96]
Islam and Freemasonry
Many
Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to both
antisemitism and
Anti-Zionism, though other criticisms are made such as linking Freemasonry to al-
Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah).
[97][98] Some Muslim anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the
Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the
Al-Aqsa Mosque in order to rebuild the
Temple of Solomon in
Jerusalem.
[99] In article 28 of its Covenant,
Hamas states that Freemasonry,
Rotary, and other similar groups "work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ..."
[100]
Many countries with a significant Muslim population do not allow
Masonic establishments within their jurisdictions. However, countries
such as
Turkey and
Morocco have established Grand Lodges,
[101] while in countries such as
Malaysia[102][103] and
Lebanon[104] there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge.
In Pakistan in 1972
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then
Prime Minister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry. Lodge buildings were confiscated by the government.
[105]
Masonic lodges existed in
Iraq as early as 1917, when the first lodge under the
United Grand Lodge of England
(UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE existed by the 1950s, and a
Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. However the position changed
following the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close in 1965.
[106] This position was later reinforced under
Saddam Hussein;
the death penalty was "prescribed" for those who "promote or acclaim
Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate [themselves]
with Zionist organisations."
[97]
Political opposition
In 1799 English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the
French Revolution, the
Unlawful Societies Act, 1799 banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an
oath or obligation.
[107]
The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges
called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and
explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and
lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work.
As a result Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the
Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local
"Clerk of the Peace" a list of the members of his lodge once a year.
This continued until 1967 when the obligation of the provision was
rescinded by
Parliament.
[107]
Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of
William Morgan by Freemasons and subsequent disappearance. Reports of the "Morgan Affair", together with opposition to
Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason) helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement, culminating in the formation of a short lived
Anti-Masonic Party which fielded candidates for the Presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.
[108]
Lodge in Erlangen, Germany. First meeting after World War II with guests from USA, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.
In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the
Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the
Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under
Licio Gelli’s leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the
Vatican Bank.
However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and
irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled
Gelli in 1976.
[109]
Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the
New World Order and the
Illuminati,
and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world
domination or already secretly in control of world politics.
Historically, Freemasonry has attracted criticism—and suppression—from
both the politically
extreme right (e.g.,
Nazi Germany)
[110][111] and the
extreme left (e.g. the former
Communist states in
Eastern Europe).
[112]
Even in modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes viewed with distrust.
[113]
In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and
police officers, were from 1999 to 2009 required to disclose their
membership.
[114]
While a parliamentary inquiry found that there has been no evidence of
wrongdoing, it was felt that any potential loyalties Masons might have,
based on their vows to support fellow Masons, should be transparent to
the public.
[113][114][115]
The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership of
applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in
2009 by
Justice Secretary Jack Straw
(who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the
rule was considered disproportionate, since no impropriety or
malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.
[116]
Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France;
membership is rising, but reporting in the popular media is often
negative.
[113]
In some countries anti-Masonry is often related to
antisemitism and anti-
Zionism. For example, In 1980, the
Iraqi legal and
penal code was changed by
Saddam Hussein's ruling
Ba'ath Party,
making it a felony to "promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including
Freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations".
[97] Professor Andrew Prescott of the
University of Sheffield writes: "Since at least the time of the
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that
11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order".
[117]
The Holocaust
Main article:
The Holocaust
The preserved records of the
Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons.
[118] RSHA Amt VII (Written Records) was overseen by Professor
Franz Six
and was responsible for "ideological" tasks, by which was meant the
creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number is
not accurately known, it is estimated that between 80,000 and 200,000
Freemasons were killed under the
Nazi regime.
[119] Masonic concentration camp inmates were graded as political prisoners and wore an inverted
red triangle.
[120]
The small blue
forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge
Zur Sonne, in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in
Bremen, Germany. In 1938 a forget-me-not badge—made by the same factory as the Masonic badge—was chosen for the annual Nazi Party
Winterhilfswerk, the annual charity drive of the
National Socialist People's Welfare,
the welfare branch of the Nazi party. This coincidence enabled
Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of
membership.
[121][122][123]
After
World War II, the forget-me-not flower was again used as a Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention of the
United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948.
[124]
The badge is now worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world
to remember all who suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially
those during the Nazi era.
[12
