Rockwell B-1 Lancer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| B-1 Lancer | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| A B-1B flying over the Pacific Ocean. | |
| Role | Supersonic Strategic bomber |
| National origin | United States |
| Manufacturer | North American Rockwell/Rockwell International Boeing |
| First flight | 23 December 1974 |
| Introduction | 1 October 1986 |
| Status | In service |
| Primary user | United States Air Force |
| Produced | 1973–74, 1983–88 |
| Number built | B-1A: 4 B-1B: 100 |
| Unit cost | |
Designed by Rockwell International, the bomber's development was delayed multiple times over its history, as the theory of strategic balance changed from flexible response to massive retaliation and back again. Each change in stance changed the perceived need for manned bombers. The initial B-1A version was developed in the early 1970s, but its production was canceled, and only four prototypes were built. The need for a new platform once again surfaced in the early 1980s, and the aircraft resurfaced as the B-1B version with the focus on low-level penetration bombing. However, by this point development of stealth technology was promising an aircraft of dramatically improved capability. Production went ahead as the B version would be operational before the "Advanced Technology Bomber" (which became the B-2 Spirit), during a period when the B-52 would be increasingly vulnerable. The B-1B entered service in 1986 with the USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) as a nuclear bomber.
In the early 1990s, following the Gulf War and concurrent with the disestablishment of SAC and its reassignment to the newly formed Air Combat Command (ACC), the B-1B was converted to conventional bombing use. It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 and again during the NATO action in Kosovo the following year. The B-1B has supported U.S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Lancer is the supersonic component of the USAF's long-range bomber force, along with the subsonic B-52 and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit. The bomber is commonly called the "Bone" (originally from "B-One"). With the retirement of the General Dynamics/Grumman EF-111A Raven in 1998 and the Grumman F-14 Tomcat in 2006, the B-1B is the U.S. military's only active variable-sweep wing aircraft. The B-1B is expected to continue to serve into the 2030s, with the Next-Generation Bomber to start supplementing the B-1B in the 2020s.
Development
Background
Main article: North American XB-70 Valkyrie
The U.S. Air Force in 1955 issued requirements for a new bomber with the payload and range of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress and the Mach 2 maximum speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler.[2] In December 1957, the U.S. Air Force selected North American Aviation's proposal to replace the B-52 with the B-70 Valkyrie.[3] The Valkyrie was a six-engine bomber that could reach Mach 3 speeds at high altitude (70,000 ft or 21,000 m)[4] to avoid interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s.[5] Soviet aircraft were already unable to intercept the high-flying Lockheed U-2;[6] the Valkyrie would fly at similar altitudes but much higher speeds.[5] In combat, the B-70 was expected to simply fly right by the defenders.By the late 1950s, however, anti-aircraft surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) could threaten high-altitude aircraft,[7] as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers's U-2.[8] The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) began moving its bombers to low-level penetration before the U-2 downing. This tactic greatly reduces radar detection distances by use of terrain masking; using features of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing the target.[9] Even at somewhat higher altitudes, radar systems of the era were subject to "clutter" from stray returns from the ground and other objects, requiring a minimum angle above the ground to be effective. Bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by flying around the radar sites. This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft.[9][10] The same effects also meant that low flying aircraft were difficult to detect by higher flying interceptors, since their radar systems could not readily pick out opposing aircraft against the clutter from ground reflections.
Planners outlined a series of low-level profiles for the B-70, but higher drag at low level limited the B-70 to subsonic speed while dramatically decreasing its range.[7] The result would be an aircraft with somewhat higher subsonic speed, but less range than the B-52 it was meant to replace. Unsuited for the new low-altitude role, and because of a growing shift to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) force, the B-70 bomber program was canceled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy,[5][11] and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic research program.[12]
Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52's huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition of improved electronic countermeasures suites to deal with radars.[13] During the Vietnam War the concept that all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head, and the "big belly" modifications increased the B-52's total bomb load to 60,000 pounds (27,000 kg),[14] turning it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used against ground troops along with strategic targets from high altitudes.[10] The much smaller bomb bay of the B-70 would have made it much less useful in this role.
Design studies and delays
Although effective, the B-52 was not ideal for the low-level role. This led to a number of aircraft designs known as "penetrators", which were tuned specifically for long-range low-altitude flight. The first of these designs to see operation was the supersonic F-111 fighter-bomber, which used variable-sweep wings for tactical missions.[15] Similar aircraft also emerged for other users as well, notably the TSR-2, and later, Panavia Tornado and Sukhoi Su-24. A number of studies on a strategic-range counterpart followed.The first post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known as the Subsonic Low Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept wing, T-tail and large high-bypass engines.[16] This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing planform, then in vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) payload and a range of 8,750 nautical miles (16,200 kilometres), with 2,500 nmi (4,600 km) being flown at low altitudes. In August 1963 the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator (LAMP) design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) bomb load and somewhat shorter range of 7,150 nmi (13,240 km).[17][18]
These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American.[19][20] In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing Mach 2 class B-58 Hustler.[21] Given the lengthy series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for "America's Most Studied Aircraft".[22][23]
The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B-70 program had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber of any sort. The air force was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense. They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce option because the bombers could be quickly launched into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked. However, the introduction of the SLBM mooted the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs had the accuracy and speed needed to attack point targets. During this time, ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their lower unit cost,[24] but development costs were much higher.[7] Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force portion of the deterrent force[25] and felt a new expensive bomber was not needed.[26][27] McNamara limited the AMSA program to studies and component development beginning in 1964.[27]
Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in 1968.[27][28] McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 fleet and adding nearly 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then being filled by the B-58.[10][27] He again vetoed funding for AMSA aircraft development in 1968.[28]
B-1A program
President Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking office, keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war.[29] Nixon's Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, since they lacked the desired range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated.[29] In April 1969, the program officially became the B-1A.[10][29] This was the first entry in the new bomber designation series, first created in 1962. The Air Force issued a request for proposals in November 1969.[30]
Rockwell's design featured a number of features common to 1960s U.S. designs. Among these was the use of a "crew capsule" that ejected as a unit during emergencies, which was introduced to improve survivability in the case of an ejection at high speed. Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both high lift during takeoff and landing, and low drag during a high-speed dash phase.[35] With the wings set to their widest position the aircraft had considerably better lift and power than the B-52, allowing it to operate from a much wider variety of bases. Penetration of the USSR's defences would take place at supersonic speed, crossing them as quickly as possible before entering into the less defended "heartland" where speeds could be reduced again.[35] The large size and fuel capacity of the design would allow the "dash" portion of the flight to be relatively long.
In order to achieve the required Mach 2 performance at high altitudes, the exhaust nozzles and air intake inlets were variable.[36] Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure. The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost.[32] A pair of small vanes mounted near the nose are part of an active vibration damping system that smooths out the otherwise bumpy low-altitude ride.[37] The first three B-1As featured an escape capsule that ejected the cockpit with all four crew members inside. The fourth B-1A was equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew member.[38]
The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971.[39] The first B-1A prototype (serial no. 74-0158) flew on 23 December 1974. Three more B-1A prototypes followed.[40] As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high inflation during that period. In 1970, the estimated unit cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million.[41]
New problems and cancellation
In 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 "Foxbat".[42] During debriefing he described a new "super-Foxbat" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar systems in order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft "visible" and easy to attack.[43] Given that the B-1's armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it now appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned.[44] In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided it in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying "The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars."[45]When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program. By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better avenue of approach than the B-1. Pentagon officials also stated that the AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace. With a range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses and penetrate at low altitude just like a bomber, but in much greater numbers at a lower cost.[46] A small number of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost perhaps 20% of the price to deploy the planned 244 B-1As.[45]
On 30 June 1977, Carter announced that the B-1A would be canceled in favor of ICBMs, SLBMs, and a fleet of modernized B-52s armed with ALCMs.[34] Carter called it "one of the most difficult decisions that I've made since I've been in office." No mention of the stealth work was made public with the program being top secret, but today it is known that in early 1978 he authorized the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project, which eventually led to the B-2 Spirit.[47]
Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines. The Department of Defense was surprised by the announcement; internal expectations were that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to around 150.[48] Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA) claimed, "They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow."[49] In contrast, it appears the Soviets were more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. Soviet news agency TASS commented that "the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race."[45] Western military leaders were generally happy with the decision. NATO commander Alexander Haig described the ALCM as an "attractive alternative" to the B-1. French General Georges Buis stated "The B-1 is a formidable weapon, but not terribly useful. For the price of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles."[45]
Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981. The program included 70 flights totaling 378 hours. A top speed of Mach 2.22 was reached by the second B-1A. Engine testing also continued during this time with the YF101 engines totaling almost 7,600 hours.[50]
Shifting priorities
The U.S. Army responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability.[52] In order to slow an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the U.S. Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the air force. Although the B-52 had the range to support on-demand global missions, its long runway requirements limited the forward basing possibilities.[53]
During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 program as an example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s.[54] During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation.[55]
B-1B program
On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985, as it was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets.[56] After this, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG-31 interceptor and the first Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B-52 increasingly vulnerable.[57] During 1981, funds were allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame, this led to the Long-Range Combat Aircraft (LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111 and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic operations.[56]
In January 1982 the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers.[59] Numerous changes were made to the design to make it better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in the new B-1B.[46] These changes included a reduction in maximum speed,[55] which allowed the variable-aspect intake ramps to be replaced by simpler fixed geometry intake ramps in the newer design. This reduced the B version's radar signature; the reduction in radar cross-section was seen as a good trade off for the speed decrease.[35] High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area for the revised design,[55] and low-level speeds were increased from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92. The B-1B has a maximum speed of Mach 1.25 at higher altitudes.[35][60]
The B-1B's maximum takeoff weight was increased to 477,000 pounds (216,000 kg) from the B-1A's 395,000 pounds (179,000 kg).[35][61] The weight increase was to allow for takeoff with a full internal fuel load and for external weapons to be carried. Rockwell engineers were able to reinforce critical areas and lighten non-critical areas of the airframe, so the increase in empty weight was minimal.[61] In order to deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 and other aircraft with look-down capability, the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded.[35]
B-1A #1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center at the former Griffiss Air Force Base, New York.[64] B-1As #2 and #4 were modified to include B-1B systems. The first B-1B was completed and began flight testing in March 1983. The first production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984 and first flew on 18 October 1984.[65] The 100th and final B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988;[40] before the last B-1B was delivered, the air force had determined that the aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses.[66]
Design
Overview
The B-1 has a blended wing body configuration, with variable-sweep wing, four turbofan engines, and triangular fin control surfaces. The wings can sweep from 15 degrees to 67.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep). Forward-swept wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aft-swept wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight.[67] The B-1's variable-sweep wings and thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with better takeoff performance, allowing it to use more runways than previous bombers.[68] The length of the aircraft presented a flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular fin control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1. The B-1's Structural Mode Control System rotates the vanes automatically to counteract turbulence and smooth out the ride.[69]
The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency.[72] The core of this engine has since been re-used in several other engine designs, including the GE F110 which has seen use in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and most recent versions of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.[73] It is also the basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B-2 Spirit and the U-2S.[73] The F101 engine was the basis for the core of the extremely popular CFM56 civil engine, which can be found on some versions of practically every small-to-medium sized airliner.[74] The nose gear cover door has controls for the auxiliary power units (APUs), which allow for quick starts of the APUs upon order to scramble.[75][76]
Avionics
The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming equipment,[81] which has three sets of antennas; one at the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing in the tail radome.[82][83] The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system.[84] Each AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares. The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares at a weight of over 3.3 pounds (1.5 kg).[85] The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 Towed Decoy System.[86]
Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low radar cross-section (RCS). Although not technically a stealth aircraft in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th that of the B-52 (probably about 26 ft² or 2.4 m²), although the Lancer is not substantially smaller in mass than the Stratofortress.[84][87]
Upgrades
Block D added a "Near Precision Capability" for B-1 aircrews to accurately put bombs on target with improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities.[88] The first part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade added Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), ALE-50 Towed Decoy System, and anti-jam radios.[81][89][90] Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition), substantially improving the bomber's capability. Upgrades were completed in September 2006.[91] Block F was the Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and schedule slips.[92]
In 2007 the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on the B-1 fleet. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay.[93] Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was fielded in summer 2008.[94][95] Future precision munitions include the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb.[96] In 2011, the Air Force was considering upgrading the B-1s with multiple ejector racks so that they can carry three times as many smaller JDAMs than they currently can.[97]
In 2005, a program began to upgrade crew stations and integrate data linking.[98] A B-1 equipped with the Fully Integrated Data Link (FIDL) first flew on 29 July 2009; the FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the need to enter information between systems by hand.[99] In January 2013, Boeing delivered the first Integrated Battle Station (IBS) equipped B-1. This replaced several displays with new multi-function color display units, introduced a Central Integrated Test System and a newer model of Aircraft Performance Monitoring Computer.[100][101] In June 2012, the B-1Bs are receiving Sustainment-Block 16 upgrades to add Link 16 networking and digital flight instrumentation.[102]
In February 2014, work began on a multi-year upgrade of 62 B-1Bs, scheduled to be completed by 2019. The vertical situation display upgrade (VDSU) shall replace existing flight instruments with multifunction color displays, a second display shall aid threat evasion and targeting, and act as a back-up display. Additional memory capacity is to be installed for the diagnostics database. Procurement and installation of the IBS upgrades is expected to cost $918 million, research and engineering costs are estimated at $391 million. Other additions are to replace the two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna, replacement of the APQ-164 radar, and a new attitude indicator.[103]
Operational history
Strategic Air Command
The second B-1B, "The Star of Abilene", was the first B-1B delivered to the USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) in June 1985. Initial operational capability was reached on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear alert status.[104][105] The B-1 received the official name "Lancer" on 15 March 1990. However, the bomber has been commonly called the "Bone"; a nickname that appears to stem from an early newspaper article on the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as "B-ONE" with the hyphen inadvertently omitted.[106]
Originally designed strictly for nuclear war, the B-1's development as an effective conventional bomber was delayed until the 1990s. The collapse of the Soviet Union had brought the B-1's nuclear role into question, leading to President George H. W. Bush ordering a $3 billion conventional refit.[109] By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the 500 pounds (230 kg) Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Despite being cleared for this role, the problems with the engines precluded their use in Operation Desert Storm.[110] B-1s were primarily reserved for strategic nuclear strike missions at this time, providing the role of airborne nuclear deterrent against the Soviet Union.[110] The B-52 was more suited to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by coalition forces instead.[110]
After the inactivation of Strategic Air Command (SAC) and the establishment of the Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability. Part of this development was the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B-1 Division.[111] In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings were also created in the Air National Guard, with former fighter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the aircraft.[112] By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the "Block D" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions. The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons;[35] its nuclear capability was disabled by 1995 with the removal of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware.[113]
Conventional role
The B-1 has higher survivability and speed when compared to the older B-52, which it was intended to replace. It also holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload, distance, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes.[116][117] In November 1983, three B-1Bs set a long distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike anywhere in the world and return to base without any stops.[118] The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994.[86]
Of the 100 B-1Bs built, 93 remained in 2000 after losses in accidents. In June 2001, the Pentagon sought to place a third of its then fleet of 93 into storage; this proposal resulted in several U.S. Air National Guard officers and members of Congress lobbying against the proposal, including the drafting of an amendment to prevent such cuts.[66] The 2001 proposal was intended to allow money to be diverted to further upgrades to the remaining B-1Bs, such as computer modernization.[66] In 2003, accompanied by the removal of B-1Bs from the two bomb wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to retire 33 aircraft to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of remaining B-1Bs.[119] In 2004 a new appropriation bill called for some of the retired aircraft to return to service,[120] and the USAF returned seven mothballed bombers to service to increase the fleet to 67 aircraft.[121]
The B-1B underwent a series of flight tests using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first US Air Force aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico. This was conducted as part of an ongoing Air Force testing and certification program to reduce reliance on traditional oil sources.[125] On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan.[94]
In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base attacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.[126] The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service in September 2012, split between four squadrons organized into two Bomb Wings: the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas, and the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota.[101][127]
With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the air force may keep the bomber in service until approximately 2038.[128] Despite upgrades, the B-1 has repair and cost issues resulting from its age. For every flight hour it needs 48.4 hours of repair. The fuel, repairs and other needs for a 12-hour mission costs $720,000 as of 2010.[129] The $63,000 cost per flight hour is, however, less than the $72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2.[130] In June 2010, senior US Air Force officials met to consider retiring the entire fleet to meet budget cuts.[131] It is expected to be supplemented by the Next-Generation Bombers beginning in the 2020s.[132] In the meantime, its "capabilities are particularly well-suited to the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacific region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1 in support of the focus on the Pacific" as part of President Obama's "Pivot to East Asia".[133]
In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan. Their nine B-1Bs flew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B squadron on a single deployment. The squadron spent 9,500 hours airborne, while having one of its bombers in the air at all times. They accounted for a quarter of the combat aircraft sorties over the country while there and averaged 2–3 requests for air support per day.[134] On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laser-guided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), and Long Range Anti-Ship Missiles (LRASM). The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties such as patrolling shipping lanes.[135]
Variants
- B-1A
- B-1B
- B-1R
Existing external hardpoints would be modified to allow multiple conventional weapons to be carried, increasing overall loadout. For air-to-air defense, an Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar would be added and some existing hardpoints modified to carry air-to-air missiles. If needed the B-1R could escape from unfavorable air-to-air encounters with its Mach 2+ speed. Few aircraft are currently capable of sustained speeds over Mach 2.[137]
Operators
United States Air Force
- Strategic Air Command 1985-92
- Air Combat Command 1992-present
-
- 9th Bomb Squadron 1993-present
- 13th Bomb Squadron 2000-05
- 28th Bomb Squadron 1994-present
- 337th Bomb Squadron 1993-94
-
- 34th Bomb Squadron 1994-97, 2002-present
- 37th Bomb Squadron 1986-present
- 77th Bomb Squadron 1985-95, 1997-2002
-
- 337th Test and Evaluation Squadron (Dyess AFB, Texas) 2004-present
-
- 77th Weapons Squadron (Dyess) 2003-present
- 96th Bomb Wing - Dyess AFB, Texas
-
- 337th Bomb Squadron 1985-93
- 338th Combat Crew Training Squadron 1986-93
- 4018th Combat Crew Training Squadron 1985-86
- 319th Bomb Wing - Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota 1987-94
- 366th Wing - Mountain Home AFB, Idaho 1997-2002
-
- 34th Bomb Squadron
- 384th Bomb Wing - McConnell AFB, Kansas 1987-94
-
- 28th Bomb Squadron
- Air National Guard
- 116th Bomb Wing - Robins AFB. Georgia 1996-2002
-
- 128th Bomb Squadron
- 184th Bomb Wing - McConnell AFB, Kansas 1994-2002
-
- 127th Bomb Squadron
- Air Force Flight Test Center - Edwards AFB, California
- 412th Operations Group 1989-92
- 412th Test Wing 1992-present
- 6510th Test Wing 1974-89
-
- 6519th Flight Test Squadron
Aircraft on display
- B-1A
- 74-0160 - Wings Over the Rockies Museum at the former Lowry Air Force Base in Denver, Colorado.[139]
- 74-0174 - Strategic Air and Space Museum in Ashland, Nebraska. This aircraft has conventional ejection seats and other features used on the B-1B variant.[140]
- B-1B
- 83-0065 Star of Abilene - Dyess Linear Air Park at Dyess Air Force Base in Texas. This was the first aircraft delivered to the U.S. Air Force. Dyess AFB is home to one of two active Air Force B-1B wings.[141]
- 83-0066 Ole Puss - Heritage Park at Mountain Home AFB in Idaho with wheels in the wells.[142]
- 83-0067 Texas Raider - South Dakota Air and Space Museum at Ellsworth Air Force Base in South Dakota. Ellsworth AFB is home to one of two active Air Force B-1B wings.[143]
- 83-0068 Spuds - Reflections of Freedom Air Park at McConnell Air Force Base in Wichita, Kansas, a former Air Force and Air National Guard B-1B base.[144]
- 83-0069 Silent Penetrator - Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base in Warner Robins, Georgia, a former Air National Guard B-1B base. This aircraft was the sixth B-1 produced, and was delivered to the 96th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas on 13 March 1986. This aircraft arrived at Robins AFB in September 2002. Robins AFB was previously home to one of two Air National Guard B-1B wings.[145]
- 83-0070 7 Wishes - Hill Aerospace Museum at Hill Air Force Base in Ogden, Utah.[146]
- 83-0071 Spit Fire - near the main gate at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. This aircraft was one of two that suffered an in-flight engine failure in 1990 that led to grounding of the fleet.[147]
- 84-0051 - National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio. It is displayed in the Museum's Cold War Gallery, and replaces the B-1A (74-0174) formerly on display.[148]
Accidents and incidents
Ten B-1s have been lost due to accidents. Between 1984 and 2001, 17 crew members and people on board have been killed in B-1 accidents.[149]Crashes
- On 29 August 1984, B-1A (AF Ser. No. 74-0159) stalled and crashed while performing minimum control speed tests at low altitude. The crew used the escape capsule to leave the bomber, but the parachutes deployed improperly, causing the capsule to hit nose down. The impact killed the B-1's pilot, Rockwell test pilot Doug Benefield, and seriously injured two other crew members.[150][151]
- In September 1987, B-1B (s/n 84-0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near La Junta, Colorado while flying on a low-level training route. This was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew members aboard. The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished. The root cause of the accident was thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge during the low-level flight. The impact was severe enough to sever fuel and hydraulic lines on one side of the aircraft, the other side's engines functioned long enough to allow for ejection. The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect these supply lines.[152]
- In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0063) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near Tye, Texas after a fire broke out above the left engines. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft.[152]
- In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0076) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB crashed short of the runway at Ellsworth AFB during adverse weather. All four crew members ejected successfully.[152]
- In November 1992, B-1B (s/n 86-0106) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, flying on a low-level training flight crashed into a mountain near Van Horn, Texas. All four members of the crew were killed, and the cause was attributed to pilot error.[152]
- In September 1997, B-1B (s/n 85-0078) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, flying in the Powder River Military Operating Area crashed 25 miles (40 km) north of Alzada, Montana. All four members of the crew were killed.[152][153] The review board found that the bomber struck the ground while performing a defensive maneuver.[154]
- On 18 February 1998, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Texas crashed near Marion, Kentucky when a fire detected by a cockpit instrument panel shut down the aircraft's power.[155] All four crew members were able to eject and were rescued safely.[156]
- In December 2001, B-1B (s/n 86-0114) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, was lost over the Indian Ocean. All four crew members successfully ejected and were rescued.[157] The bomber was flying en route to a long-range combat mission over Afghanistan when the crew declared an in-flight emergency. The pilot, Captain William Steele, attributed the crash to "multiple malfunctions" causing the bomber to go "out of control".[149] Because of the water's depth, the structural data collector (SDC) or "Black Box" was not recovered and the cause was not positively determined. The aircraft had recently returned from a routine Phase Inspection, and was on its first combat mission after returning to the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory. This was the first B-1B to be lost during combat operations.[149][158]
- On 4 April 2008, B-1B (s/n 86-0116) lost hydraulic power while taxiing, then crashed into a concrete barrier and caught fire at Al Udeid AB, Qatar. The crew safely evacuated the aircraft. The B-1B was carrying multiple bombs at the time, all but two of which detonated during the fire. The aircraft was destroyed.[159]
- On 19 August 2013, B-1B out of Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota crashed in a remote area near Broadus, Montana. All four crew members survived by ejecting before the aircraft crashed.[160] A report found that the crash was due to a mechanical failure leading to a fuel leak and explosions.[161]
Other accidents and notable incidents
- In October 1990, while flying a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (s/n 86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached full power without afterburners. Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted. The #1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, engine blades had cut through the engine mounts and the engine became detached from the aircraft.[152]
- In December 1990, B-1B (s/n 83-0071) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, experienced a jolt that caused the #3 engine to shut down with its fire extinguisher activating. This event, coupled with the October 1990 engine incident, led to a 50+ day grounding of the B-1Bs not on nuclear alert status. The problem was eventually traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and all B-1Bs were equipped with modified engines.[152]
- In June 1994, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, made an emergency divert to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany due to a wing sweep malfunction. The crew made a high speed landing at Rhein-Main and stopped 100 feet short of the end of the runway. Afterward the overheated brakes led to a fire of the right main landing gear, but was quickly extinguished.[162]
- On 15 September 2005, B-1B (s/n 85-0066) was extensively damaged by fire while landing at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. The investigation into the incident concluded that leaking hydraulic fluid and sparks from a wheel being gouged caused a fire to start in the aircraft's right main landing gear as it touched down. The resulting fire damaged the B-1's right wing, engine nacelle, airframe and landing gear, leading to an estimated repair cost of more than $32 million.[163]
- On 8 May 2006, B-1B (s/n 86-0132) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, landed "gear-up" during recovery from an 11-hour ferry flight to the island of Diego Garcia. A resulting fire was quickly extinguished and the crew escaped through the top hatch with only a minor back injury to the co-pilot. The air force investigation concluded that the crew "forgot to lower the landing gear" based on the following reasons: 1) co-pilot task oversaturation, 2) co-pilot's wanting to complete a long mission, 3) neither pilot completed the landing checklist, 4) co-pilot's belief that the pilot had lowered the landing gear when he had not, 5) pilot had turned over control to the co-pilot on the final approach and the pilot had reported to base that the landing gear was down when it was not - indicator lights showing the landing gear was still up were working and apparently ignored. As a result the B-1B impacted and slid on the runway, which caused approximately $8 million of damage to the aircraft and runway.[164] After repairs, the B-1B returned to service in 2007.[citation needed]
Specifications (B-1B)
| Rockwell B-1A Cutaway | |
 Rockwell B-1A Cutaway from Flightglobal.com |
- Crew: four (aircraft commander, copilot, offensive systems officer and defensive systems officer)
- Payload: 125,000 lb (56,700 kg) ; internal and external ordnance combined
- Length: 146 ft (44.5 m)
- Wingspan:
- Extended: 137 ft (41.8 m)
- Swept: 79 ft (24 m))
- Height: 34 ft (10.4 m)
- Wing area: 1,950 ft² (181.2 m²)
- Airfoil: NACA69-190-2
- Empty weight: 192,000 lb (87,100 kg)
- Loaded weight: 326,000 lb (148,000 kg)
- Max. takeoff weight: 477,000 lb (216,400 kg)
- Powerplant: 4 × General Electric F101-GE-102 augmented turbofans
- Dry thrust: 14,600 lbf (64.9 kN) each
- Thrust with afterburner: 30,780 lbf (136.92 kN) each
- Fuel capacity, optional: 10,000 U.S. gal (38,000 L) fuel tank for 1–3 internal weapons bays each
- Maximum speed:
- At altitude: Mach 1.25 (721 knots, 830 mph, 1,340 km/h at 50,000 ft/15,000 m altitude)
- At low level: Mach 0.92 (700 mph (1,100 km/h) at 200–500 ft (61–152 m) altitude)
- Range: 6,478 nmi (7,456 mi (11,999 km))
- Combat radius: 2,993 nmi (3,445 mi (5,544 km))
- Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,000 m)
- Wing loading: 167 lb/ft² (816 kg/m²)
- Thrust/weight: 0.38
- Hardpoints: six external hardpoints for 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) of ordnance (use for weapons restricted by arms treaties[94]) and three internal bomb bays for 75,000 pounds (34,000 kg) of ordnance.
- Bombs:
- 84× Mk-82 Air inflatable retarder (AIR) general purpose (GP) bombs[166]
- 81× Mk-82 low drag general purpose (LDGP) bombs[167]
- 84× Mk-62 Quickstrike sea mines[168]
- 24× Mk-84 general purpose bombs
- 24× Mk-65 naval mines[169]
- 30× CBU-87/89/CBU-97 Cluster Bomb Units (CBU)[N 2]
- 30× CBU-103/104/105 Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD) CBUs
- 24× GBU-31 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk-84 GP or BLU-109 warhead)[N 3]
- 15× GBU-38 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk-82 GP warhead)[N 4]
- 48x GBU-38 JDAM (using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks)[170]
- 48x GBU-54 LaserJDAM (using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks)[170]
- 24× AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW)
- 96× or 144× GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb GPS guided bombs[N 5] (not fielded on B-1 yet)
- 24× AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM)
- 24× B61 or B83 nuclear bombs (no longer carried)[169]
- 1× AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive phased-array radar
- 1× AN/ALQ-161 radar warning and defensive jamming equipment
- 1× AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system
- 1× Lockheed Martin Sniper XR targeting pod (optional)[171][172]
| B-1B Lancer internal weapons load options |
|---|
| external weapons load options (mostly not in use due to RCS concerns) |
|---|
Notable appearances in media
Main article: B-1 Lancer in fiction
The Tupolev Tu-160 (Russian: Туполев Ту-160, NATO reporting name: Blackjack) is a supersonic, variable-sweep wing heavy strategic bomber designed by the Tupolev Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Although several civil and military transport aircraft are larger in overall dimensions, the Tu-160 is the world's largest combat aircraft, largest supersonic aircraft and largest variable-sweep aircraft built. Only the North American XB-70 Valkyrie
had higher empty weight and maximum speed. The Tu-160 has the heaviest
take off weight of any military aircraft besides transports.
Entering service in 1987, the Tu-160 was the last strategic bomber designed for the Soviet Union. 16 aircraft are in use with the Russian Air Force. A planned modernisation of 10 aircraft to Tu-160M standard has been announced.
Work on the new Soviet bomber continued despite an end to the B-1A
and in the same year, the design was accepted by the government
committee. The prototype was photographed by an airline passenger at a Zhukovsky Airfield
in November 1981, about a month before the aircraft's first flight on
18 December 1981. Production was authorized in 1984, beginning at Kazan Aircraft Production Association.[citation needed]
Although the phase I update was due to be completed by 2016, industrial limitations may delay it to 2019 or beyond.[7] There is a particular problem with the engines; although Kuznetsov designed an NK-32M engine that improved the reliability of the troublesome NK-32 engines, its successor company has struggled to deliver working units. Metallist-Samara JSC has not produced new engines for a decade and when it was given a contract in 2011 to overhaul 26 of the existing engines, it managed just four in two years.[7] There are problems with the ownership of the company and it lacks finance to build a new production line; it insists it needs an order of 20 engines per year but the government is only prepared to pay for 4-6 engines per year.[7][8] A much-improved gas generator has been bench tested but may not enter production until 2016.[2]
The Tu-160 is a variable-geometry wing aircraft. The aircraft employs a fly-by-wire control system with a blended wing profile, and full-span slats are used on the leading edges, with double-slotted flaps on the trailing edges.[citation needed]
The Tu-160 is powered by four Kuznetsov NK-321 afterburning turbofan engines, the most powerful ever fitted to a combat aircraft. Unlike the American B-1B Lancer, which reduced the original Mach 2+ requirement for the B-1A to achieve a smaller radar profile, the Tu-160 retains variable intakes, and is capable of reaching Mach 2.05 speed at altitude.[9]
The Tu-160 is equipped with a probe-and-drogue in-flight refueling system for extended-range missions, although it is rarely used. The Tu-160's internal fuel capacity of 130 tons gives the aircraft a roughly 15-hour flight endurance at a cruise speed of around 850 km/h (Mach 0.77, 530 mph) at 9,145 m (30,003 ft).[10] In February 2008, Tu-160 bombers and Il-78 refueling tankers practiced air refueling during air combat exercise, as well as MiG-31, A-50 and other Russian combat aircraft.[11]
Although the Tu-160 was designed for reduced detectability to both radar and infrared, it is not a stealth aircraft. Nevertheless, Lt. Gen. Igor Khvorov claimed that Tu-160s managed to penetrate the US sector of the Arctic undetected on 25 April 2006, leading to a USAF investigation according to a Russian source.[12]
The Tu-160 has a crew of four (pilot, co-pilot, bombardier, and defensive systems operator) in K-36DM ejection seats.[citation needed]
Weapons are carried in two internal bays, each capable of holding
20,000 kg (44,400 lb) of free-fall weapons or a rotary launcher for nuclear
missiles; additional missiles may also be carried externally. The
aircraft's total weapons load capacity is 40,000 kg (88,185 lb).[13] However, no defensive weapons are provided; the Tu-160 is the first unarmed post-World War II Soviet bomber.
A demilitarized, commercial version of the Tu-160, named Tu-160SK, was displayed at Asian Aerospace in Singapore in 1994 with a model of a small space vehicle named Burlak[14] attached underneath the fuselage.
While similar in appearance to the American B-1 Lancer, the Tu-160 is a different class of combat aircraft, its primary role being a standoff missile platform (strategic missile carrier). The Tu-160 is also larger and faster than the B-1B and has a slightly greater combat range, though the B-1B has a larger combined payload.[15] Another significant difference is that the colour scheme on the B-1B Lancer is usually radar-absorbent black, the Tu-160 is painted with anti-flash white, giving it the nickname among Russian airmen "White Swan".[16]
Squadron deployments to Long Range Aviation began in April 1987
before the Tu-160 was first presented to the public in a parade in 1989.
In 1989 and 1990 it set 44 world speed flight records in its weight
class. Until 1991, 19 aircraft served in the 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment (GvTBAP) in Pryluky in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, replacing Tu-16 and Tu-22M3 aircraft. In 1992, Russia unilaterally suspended its flights of strategic aviation in remote regions.
The Fall of the Soviet Union saw 19 aircraft stationed in the newly independent Ukraine. On 25 August 1991, the Ukrainian parliament decreed that the country would take control of all military units on its territory and a Defence Ministry was created the same day. By the mid-1990s, the Pryluky Regiment had lost its value as a combat unit. The 184th GvTBAP's 19 "Blackjacks" were effectively grounded because of a lack of technical support, spare parts and fuel. At this time, Ukraine considered the Tu-160s more of a bargaining chip in their economic negotiations with Russia. They were of very limited value to Ukraine from a military standpoint, but discussions with Russia concerning their return bogged down. The main bone of contention was the price. While Russian experts, who examined the aircraft at the Pryluky Air Base in 1993 and 1996, assessed their technical condition as good, the price of $3 billion demanded by Ukraine was unacceptable. The negotiations led to nowhere and in April 1998, Ukraine decided to commence scrapping the aircraft under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement. In November, the first Tu-160 was ostentatiously chopped up at Pryluky.[17]
In April 1999, immediately after NATO began its air attacks against Serbia, Russia resumed talks with Ukraine about the strategic bombers. This time they proposed buying back eight Tu-160s and three Tu-95MS models manufactured in 1991 (those in the best technical condition), as well as 575 Kh-55MS missiles. An agreement was finally reached and a contract valued at $285 million was signed. That figure was to be deducted from Ukraine's debt for natural gas. A group of Russian military experts went to Ukraine on 20 October 1999 to prepare the aircraft for the trip to Engels-2 air base. The first two (a Tu-160 and a Tu-95MS) departed Pryluky on 5 November. During the months that followed, the other seven "Blackjacks" were brought to Engels, with the last two arriving on 21 February 2001.[17]
Along with the re-purchase of the aircraft from Ukraine, Russia's Defence Ministry sought other ways of rebuilding the fleet at Engels. In June 1999, the Ministry placed a contract with the Kazan Aircraft Production Association for a delivery of a single, almost complete, bomber. The aircraft was the second aircraft in the eighth production batch and it arrived at Engels on 10 September. It was commissioned into service as "07" on 5 May 2000.[17]
The unit that was operating the fleet from Engels was 121st Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment. It formed up in the spring of 1992 and by 1994 it had received 6 aircraft. By the end of February 2001, the fleet stood at 15 with the addition of the eight aircraft from Ukraine and the new-build.[17] As of 2001, six additional Tu-160 have served as experimental aircraft at Zhukovski, four remaining airworthy.
The Air Force fleet was reduced to 14 by the crash of the Mikhail Gromov during flight trials of a replacement engine on 18 September 2003.[18] It would be brought up to 16 aircraft by the completion of a part-built aircraft in June 2006 and the delivery of the Vitaly Kopylov on 29 April 2008.[19]
Following acceptance of the testing of the prototype of the
long-awaited avionics upgrades the Tu-160 formally entered service with
the Russian Air Force by a presidential decree of 30 December 2005.[20][3]
On 17 August 2007, Putin announced that Russia was resuming the strategic aviation flights stopped in 1991, sending its bomber aircraft on long-range patrols.[21] On 14 September 2007, British and Norwegian fighters intercepted two Tu-160s which breached NATO airspace near the UK and Finland.[22] On 25 December 2007, two Blackjacks came close to Danish airspace, and two Danish Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcons scrambled to intercept and identify them.[23]
According to Russian government sources, on 11 September 2007, a Tu-160 was used to drop the massive fuel-air explosive device, the Father of All Bombs, for its first field test.[24] However, some military analysts expressed skepticism that the weapon was actually delivered by a Blackjack.[25]
On 28 December 2007, the first flight of a new Tu-160 was reported to have taken place following completion of the aircraft at the Kazan Aviation Plant.[26] After flight testing, the bomber joined the Russian Air Force on 29 April 2008, bringing the total number of aircraft in service to 16. One new Tu-160 is expected to be built every one to two years until the active inventory reaches 30 or more aircraft by 2025–2030.[27][28]
On 10 September 2008, two Russian Tu-160 landed in Venezuela
as part of military manoeuvres, announcing an unprecedented deployment
to Russia's ally at a time of increasingly tense relations between
Russia and the United States. The Russian Ministry of Defence said Vasily Senko and Aleksandr Molodchiy
were on a training mission. It said in a statement carried by Russian
news agencies, that the aircraft would conduct training flights over
neutral waters before returning to Russia. Its spokesman added that the
aircraft were escorted by NATO fighters as they flew across the Atlantic Ocean.[29]
On 12 October 2008, a number of Tu-160 bombers were involved in the largest Russian strategic bomber exercise since 1984. A total of 12 bombers including Tu-160 Blackjack and Tu-95 Bear conducted a series of launches of their cruise missiles. Some bombers launched a full complement of their missiles. It was the first time that a Tu-160 had ever fired a full complement of missiles.[30]
On 10 June 2010, two Tu-160 bombers carried out a record-breaking
23-hour patrol with a planned flight range of 18,000 km (9,700 nmi). The
bombers flew along the Russian borders and over neutral waters in the
Arctic and Pacific Oceans.[31]
Russian media reports in August 2011 claimed that only four of the VVS' sixteen Tu-160 were flight worthy.[7] By mid-2012 Flight reported eleven were combat-ready[2] and between 2011-13 eleven were photographed in flight.[32]
On 1 November 2013, Aleksandr Golovanov and Aleksandr Novikov went into Colombian airspace in two different occasions without receiving previous clearance from the Colombian Government. The Aircraft was going from Venezuela to Nicaragua and headed for Managua. The Colombian Government issued a letter of protest to the Russian Government following the first violation. Two Colombian Air Force IAI Kfirs stationed at Barranquilla intercepted and escorted the two Blackjacks out of Colombian airspace after the second violation.[33][34][35][36][37]
The Convair B-58 Hustler was the first operational supersonic jet bomber capable of Mach 2 flight.[2] The aircraft was designed by Convair engineer Robert H. Widmer and developed for the United States Air Force for service in the Strategic Air Command (SAC) during the 1960s.[3] It used a delta wing, which was also employed by Convair fighters such as the F-102, with four General Electric J79
engines in pods under the wing. It carried a nuclear weapon and fuel in
a large pod under the fuselage rather than in an internal bomb bay.
Replacing the Boeing B-47 Stratojet medium bomber, it was originally intended to fly at high altitudes and supersonic speeds to avoid Soviet fighters. The B-58 received a great deal of notoriety due to its sonic boom, which was often heard by the public as it passed overhead in supersonic flight.[4]
The introduction of highly accurate Soviet surface-to-air missiles forced the B-58 into a low-level penetration role that severely limited its range and strategic value, and it was never employed to deliver conventional bombs. This led to a brief operational career between 1960 and 1970, when the B-58 was succeeded by the smaller, swing-wing FB-111A.[5]
The genesis of the B-58 program came in February 1949, when a
Generalized Bomber Study (GEBO II) had been issued by the Air Research
and Development Command (ARDC) at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.[6] A number of contractors submitted bids including Boeing, Convair, Curtiss, Douglas, Martin and North American Aviation.
Building on Convair's experience of earlier delta-wing fighters, beginning with the XF-92A, a series of GEBO II designs were developed, initially studying swept and semi-delta configurations, but settling on the delta wing planform. The final Convair proposal, coded FZP-110, was a radical two-place, delta wing bomber design powered by General Electric J53 engines. The performance estimates included a 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h; 870 kt) speed and a 3,000 statute mile (4,800 km; 2,600 nmi) range.[6]
The USAF chose Boeing (MX-1712) and Convair to proceed to a Phase 1 study. The Convair MX-1626 evolved further into a more refined proposal redesignated the MX-1964. In December 1952, the Air Force selected the MX-1964 as the winner of the design competition[7]
to meet the newly proposed SAB-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Bomber) and
SAR-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Reconnaissance), the first General
Operational Requirement (GOR) worldwide for supersonic bombers. In
February 1953, the Air Force issued a contract for development of
Convair's design.[8]
The resulting B-58 design was the first "true" USAF supersonic bomber program. The Convair design was based on a delta wing with a leading-edge sweep of 60° with four General Electric J79-GE-1 turbojet engines, capable of flying at twice the speed of sound. Although its large wing made for relatively low wing loading, it proved to be surprisingly well suited for low-altitude, high-speed flight. It seated three (pilot, bombardier/navigator, and defensive systems operator) in separated tandem cockpits. Later versions gave each crew member a novel ejection capsule that made it possible to eject at an altitude of 70,000 ft (21,000 m) at speeds up to Mach 2 (1,320 mph/2,450 km/h). Unlike standard ejection seats of the period, a protective clamshell would enclose the seat and the control stick with an attached oxygen cylinder, allowing the pilot to continue to fly even "turtled up" and ready for immediate egress. The capsule would float, and the crewmember could open the clamshell, using it as a life raft.[9][10] In an unusual test program, live bears and chimpanzees were successfully used to test the ejection system.[11] The XB-70 would use a similar system (though using capsules of a different design).
Because of heat generated at Mach 2 cruise, not only the crew
compartment, but the wheel wells and electronics bay were pressurized
and air conditioned. The B-58 utilized one of the first extensive
applications of aluminum honeycomb panels, which bonded outer and inner aluminum skins to a honeycomb of aluminum and fiberglass.[12]
The pilot's cockpit was fairly conventional for a large multiengine aircraft.[13] The electronic controls were ambitious and advanced for the day. The navigator and DSO's cockpits featured wraparound dashboards with warning lights and buttons, and automatic voice messages and warnings from a tape system were audible through the helmet sets. Research during the era of all-male combat aircraft assignments revealed that a woman's voice was more likely to gain the attention of young men in distracting situations. Nortronics Division of Northrop Corporation selected actress and singer Joan Elms to record the automated voice warnings. To the men flying the B-58, the voice was known as "Sexy Sally."[14][15]
The Sperry AN/ASQ-42 bombing/navigation system combined sophisticated inertial navigation with the KS-39 astro-tracker to provide heading reference, the AN/APN-113 Doppler radar to provide ground velocity and windspeed data, a search radar to provide range data for bomb release and trajectory, and a radio altimeter.[16] The AN/ASQ-42 was estimated to be 10 times more accurate than any previous bombing/navigation system.[16]
Defensive armament consisted of a single 20 mm (0.79 in) T-171E-3 rotary cannon with 1,200 rounds of ammunition in a radar-aimed tail barbette.[16][17] It was remotely controlled through the Emerson MD-7 automated radar fire control system only requiring the DSO to lock-on a selected target blip on his scope and then fire the gun; the system computing all aiming, velocity or heading differential, and range compensation.[16] Offensive armament typically consisted of a single nuclear weapon, along with fuel tanks, in a streamlined MB-1C pod under the fuselage. Incurable difficulties with fuel leakage resulted in the replacement of the MB-1C with the TCP (Two Component Pod), which placed the nuclear weapon in an upper section while the lower fuel component could be independently jettisoned.[18] This had the added benefit of allowing the pilot to "clean up" the aircraft for fuel efficiency or in case of emergency, while still retaining the (somewhat) more slim weapon.
The first prototype, serial number 55-660, was completed in late August 1956.[19] The first flight took place in November 1956.[20] A difficult and protracted flight test program involving 30 aircraft continued until April 1959.[21] The final B-58 was delivered in October 1962.[21]
From 1961 to 1963, the B-58 was retrofitted with two tandem stub pylons under each wing root, adjacent to the centreline pod,[22] for B43 or B61 nuclear weapons for a total of five nuclear weapons per aircraft. Although the USAF explored the possibility of using the B-58 for the conventional strike role, it was never equipped for carrying or dropping conventional bombs in service. A photo reconnaissance pod, the LA-331, was also fielded. Several other specialized pods for ECM or an early cruise missile were considered, but not adopted. The late 1950s WS-199C High Virgo air-launched ballistic missile was designed to be launched from the B-58 with four test launches of the High Virgo carried out by a B-58 to determine ballistic missile and anti-satellite system capability.[23]
The B-58 crews were elite, hand-picked from other strategic bomber
squadrons. Due to some characteristics of delta-winged aircraft, new
pilots used the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger as a conversion trainer, before moving to the TB-58A trainer.[24]
The B-58 was difficult to fly and its three-man crews were constantly
busy, but its performance was exceptional. A lightly loaded Hustler
would climb at nearly 46,000 ft/min (235 m/s).[25]
The B-58 set no less than 19 world speed records, including coast-to-coast records, and one for longest supersonic flight in history, 8024 miles between Tokyo and London. The aircraft was completely stock, serving in an operational unit, and had not been modified in any way besides being washed and waxed. One of the goals of the flight was to push the limit of its new honeycomb construction technique. The speed of the flight was limited only by the speed at which they believed the honeycomb panels would delaminate.[26]
In addition to its much smaller weapons load and more limited range than the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the B-58 had also been extremely expensive to acquire. Through FY 1961, the total cost of the B-58 program was $3 billion.[27] A highly complex aircraft, it also required considerable maintenance, much of which required specialized equipment and ground personnel. For comparison, the average maintenance cost per flying hour for the B-47 was $361, for the B-52 it was $1,025 and for the B-58 it was $1,440. This high running cost, coupled with the changed circumstances of its penetration role from high to low level, with the reduced range, were major factors contributing to its short operational lifespan of only 10 years.[28]
The B-58 also cost three times as much to operate as the B-52.[29] This included special maintenance issues with the nose landing gear, which retracted in a complicated fashion to avoid the center payload. Further compounding these issues, the B-58 had an unfavorably high accident rate: 26 B-58 aircraft were lost in accidents, 22.4% of total production. Most notably, the B-58 was very difficult to safely recover from in the loss of an engine at supersonic cruise due to differential thrust. The SAC senior leadership had been dubious about the aircraft type from the beginning, although its crews eventually became enthusiastic about the aircraft. While its performance and design were exceptional and appreciated, it was never easy to fly.
Two SAC bomb wings operated the B-58 during its operational service: the 43d Bombardment Wing, based at Carswell AFB, Texas from 1960 to 1964, and Little Rock AFB, Arkansas from 1964 to 1970; and the 305th Bombardment Wing, based at Bunker Hill AFB (later Grissom AFB), Indiana from 1961 to 1970. The 305th also operated the B-58 combat crew training school (CCTS), the predecessor of the USAF's current formal training units (FTUs).
In 1963, a B-58 flew the longest supersonic distance. It went from
Tokyo to London (via Alaska), a distance of 8,028 miles in 8 hours, 35
minutes, 20.4 seconds, averaging 938 mph. As of 2013, this record still stands.[30]
By the time the early problems had largely been resolved and SAC interest in the bomber had solidified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that the B-58 was not going to be a viable weapon system. It was during the B-58's introduction that high-altitude Russian surface-to-air missile (SAM) became a viable threat, especially the SA-2 Guideline, a SAM system the Soviet Union extensively deployed. The "solution" to this problem was to fly at low altitudes, minimizing the radar line-of-sight and reducing exposure time.
Because of the denser air at low altitudes, the B-58 could not fly at supersonic speeds and its moderate range was reduced further, thereby negating the high-speed performance the design paid so dearly for. In late 1965, Secretary McNamara ordered the B-58's retirement by 1970. Despite efforts of the Air Force to earn a reprieve, the phaseout proceeded on schedule. The last B-58s were retired in January 1970 and placed in storage in AMARC at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. The fleet survived until 1977, when nearly all remaining aircraft were sold to Southwestern Alloys for disposal.[31] The B-58 as a weapons system was replaced by the FB-111A, designed for low-altitude attack, more flexible with the carriage of conventional weapons, and less expensive to produce and maintain.
A total of 116 B-58s were produced: 30 trial aircraft and 86 production B-58A models. Most of the trial aircraft were later upgraded to operational standard. Eight were equipped as TB-58A training aircraft.
A number of B-58s were used for special trials, including testing the radar system intended for the Lockheed YF-12 interceptor. Several improved (and usually enlarged) variants, dubbed B-58B and B-58C by the manufacturer, were proposed but never built.
Singer John Denver's father, Colonel Henry J. Deutschendorf, Sr., USAF, held several speed records as a B-58 pilot.[32]
Today there are eight B-58 survivors:[37][38]
The B-58 has also appeared in the 1964 film Fail-Safe, where stock footage of B-58s was used to represent the fictional "Vindicator" bombers which attacked Moscow. Interestingly, the art used in the original magazine publication of the novel had depicted the "Vindicator" bombers—itself the recycling of the name of a World War II American dive bomber—as almost identical to B-58s but equipped with canards.[57]
In Fail Safe, a 2000 made-for-TV remake starring George Clooney, the fictional Vindicator bomber was again represented by the B-58 Hustler.
The Tupolev Tu-22 (NATO reporting name: Blinder) was the first supersonic bomber to enter production in the Soviet Union. Manufactured by Tupolev,
the Tu-22 entered service with the Soviet military in the 1960s. The
last examples were retired during the 1990s. Produced in comparatively
small numbers, the aircraft was a disappointment, lacking the
intercontinental range that had been expected. Later in their service
life, Tu-22s were used as launch platforms for the Soviet AS-4 stand-off
missile, and as reconnaissance aircraft. Tu-22s were sold to other
nations, including Libya and Iraq. The Tu-22 was one of the few Soviet bombers to see combat; with Libyan Tu-22s under the command of Muammar Gaddafi being used against Tanzania and Chad; and Iraq under Saddam Hussein used its Tu-22s during the Iran-Iraq War.
The first serial-production Tu-22B bomber, built by Factory No. 22 at Kazan, flew on 22 September 1960,[4] and the type was presented to the public in the Tushino Aviation Day parade on 9 July 1961, with a flypast of 10 aircraft.[5] It initially received the NATO reporting name 'Bullshot', which was deemed to be inappropriate, then 'Beauty', which was deemed to be too complimentary, and finally the 'Blinder'. Soviet crews called it "shilo" (awl) because of its shape.[4]
The Tu-22 entered service in 1962,[4]
but it experienced considerable problems, resulting in widespread
unserviceability and several crashes. Amongst its many faults was a
tendency for skin heating at supersonic speed, distorting the control
rods and causing poor handling. The landing speed was 100 km/h (62 mph)
greater than previous bombers and the Tu-22 had a tendency to pitch up
and strike its tail on landing, though this problem was eventually
resolved with the addition of electronic stabilization aids. Even after
some of its problems had been resolved, the 'Blinder' was never easy to
fly, and it was maintenance-intensive. Among its unpleasant
characteristics was a wing design that allowed rudder reversal
at high deflections. When the stick had been neutralized following such
an event, the deformation of the wing did not necessarily disappear but
could persist and result in an almost uncontrollable aircraft.
Pilots for the first Tu-22 squadrons were selected from the ranks of "First Class" Tu-16 pilots, which made transition into the new aircraft difficult, as the Tu-16 had a co-pilot, and many of the "elite" Tu-16 pilots selected had become accustomed to allowing their co-pilots to handle all the flight operations of the Tu-16 except for take-off and landings. As a consequence, Tu-16 pilots transitioning to the single-pilot Tu-22 suddenly found themselves having to perform all the piloting tasks, and in a much more complicated cockpit. Many, if not most of these pilots were unable to complete their training for this reason. Eventually, pilots were selected from the ranks of the Su-17 "Fitter" crews, and these pilots made the transition with less difficulty.
By the time that the Tu-22B (Blinder-A) entered service, it was already obvious that its operational usefulness was limited. Despite its speed, it was inferior to the Tu-16 with respect to combat radius, weapon load, and serviceability. Soviet president Nikita Khrushchev believed that ballistic missiles were the way of the future, and bombers like the Tu-22 were in danger of cancellation.[6] As a result, only 15[4] (some sources say 20) Tu-22Bs were built.
A combat-capable reconnaissance version, the Tu-22R ('Blinder-C'), was developed along with the bomber, entering service in 1962. The Tu-22R could be fitted with an aerial refueling probe that was subsequently fitted to most Tu-22s, expanding their radius of operation. 127 Tu-22Rs were built, 62 of which went to the AVMF for maritime reconnaissance use.[7] Some of these aircraft were stripped of their camera and sensor packs and sold for export as Tu-22Bs, although in other respects they apparently remained more comparable to the Tu-22R than to the early-production Tu-22Bs.[8]
A trainer version of the 'Blinder,' the Tu-22U ('Blinder-D'), was fielded at the same time; it had a raised cockpit for an instructor pilot. The Tu-22U had no tail guns, and was not combat-capable. Forty six were produced.[9]
To try to salvage some offensive combat role for the Tu-22 in the face of official hostility, the Tu-22 was developed as a missile carrier, the Tu-22K ('Blinder-B'), with the ability to carry a single Raduga Kh-22 (AS-4 'Kitchen') stand-off missile in a modified weapons bay. The Tu-22K was deployed both by DA (Strategic Aviation), and AVMF (Naval Aviation).[10]
The last Tu-22 subtype was the Tu-22P ('Blinder-E') electronic warfare version, initially used for ELINT electronic intelligence gathering. Some were converted to serve as stand-off ECM jammers to support Tu-22K missile carriers. One squadron was usually allocated to each Tu-22 regiment.[11]
The Tu-22 was upgraded in service with more powerful engines, in-flight refueling (for those aircraft that did not initially have it), and better electronics. The -D suffix (for Dalni, long-range) denotes aircraft fitted for aerial refueling.
Tu-22s were exported to Iraq and Libya during the 1970s. An Egyptian request was refused as a result of Soviet objections to the Yom Kippur War.[8]
The Tu-22's cockpit placed the pilot forward, offset slightly to the
left, with the weapons officer behind and the navigator below, within
the fuselage, sitting on downwards-firing ejector seats. The cockpit
design had poor visibility (doing nothing for the Tu-22's poor runway
performance), uncomfortable seats, and poor locations for instruments
and switches.[12][16]
The Tu-22's defensive armament, operated by the weapons officer, consisted of a tail turret beneath the engine pods, containing a single 23mm R-23 gun.[17] The turret was directed by a small PRS-3A 'Argon' gun-laying radar to compensate for the weapons officer's lack of rear visibility.[3] The bomber's main weapon load was carried in a fuselage bomb bay between the wings, capable of carrying up to 24 FAB-500 general-purpose bombs, one FAB-9000 bomb, or various free-fall nuclear weapons.[4] On the Tu-22K, the bay was reconfigured to carry one Raduga Kh-22 (AS-4 'Kitchen') missile semi-recessed beneath the fuselage. The enormous weapon was big enough to have a substantial effect on handling and performance, and was also a safety hazard.[18]
The early Tu-22B had an optical bombing system (which was retained by the Tu-22R), with a Rubin-1A nav/attack radar.[9] The Tu-22K had the Leninets PN (NATO reporting name 'Down Beat') to guide the Kh-22 missile.[18] The Tu-22R could carry a camera array or an APP-22 jammer pack in the bomb bay as an alternative to bombs.[9] Some Tu-22Rs were fitted with the Kub ELINT system, and later with an under-fuselage palette for M-202 Shompol side looking airborne radar, as well as cameras and an infrared line-scanner. A small number of Tu-22Ks were modified to Tu-22KP or Tu-22KPD configuration with Kurs-N equipment to detect enemy radar systems and give compatibility with the Kh-22P anti-radiation missile.[13]
The Libyan aircraft were also used against Chad as part of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, with strikes into western Sudan and Chad. Libyan Tu-22s flew their first mission over Chad on 9 October 1980 against Hissène Habré's forces near the Chadian capital of N'Djamena.[8][20] Occasional bombing raids by small numbers of Tu-22s against targets in Chad and Sudan, including a raid on Omdurman
in September 1981, which killed three civilians and injured 20 others,
continued to be performed until a ceasefire was arranged in November
1981.[21]
Fighting restarted in July 1983, with Libyan air power, including its Tu-22s, being used in attacks against forces loyal to Habré, before a further ceasefire stopped the fighting until Libyan-assisted forces began a fresh offensive in early 1986. On 17 February 1986, in retaliation for the French Operation Épervier (which had hit the runway of the Libyan Ouadi Doum Airbase one day earlier), a single LARAF Tu-22B attacked the airfield at N'Djamena. Staying under French radar coverage by flying low over the desert for more than 1,127 km (700 mi), it accelerated to over Mach 1, climbed to 5,030 m (16,503 ft) and dropped three heavy bombs. Despite the considerable speed and height, the attack was extremely precise: two bombs hit the runway, one demolished the taxiway, and the airfield remained closed for several hours as a consequence.[22][23] The bomber ran into technical problems on its return journey. U.S. early warning reconnaissance planes based in Sudan monitored distress calls sent by the pilot of the Tu-22 that probably crashed before reaching its base at Aouzou (maybe hit by twin-tubes that fired in N'Djamena airport).[24] On 19 February, another LARAF Tu-22 attempted to bomb N'Djamena once again. This time, a patrol of French Air Force Mirage F1Cs was waiting for him. The Tu-22 is intercepted and shot down 110 kilometers off Chad's capital city. [25] One bomber was shot down by captured 2K12 Kub (SA-6) surface-to-air missiles during a bombing attack on an abandoned Libyan base at Aouzou on 8 August 1987.[26][27] One eyewitness report suggests that the pilot ejected but his parachute was seen on fire.
Another Blinder was lost on the morning of 7 September 1987, when two Tu-22Bs conducted a strike against N'Djamena. This time, French air defenses were ready and a battery of MIM-23 Hawk SAMs of the 402nd Air Defence Regiment shot down one of the bombers, killing the East German crew.[27][28] This raid was the last involvement of the Tupolev Tu-22 with the Libyan-Chadian conflict.
The last flight of a Libyan Blinder was recorded on 7 September 1992. They are probably now unserviceable because of a lack of spare parts, although seven are visible at the Al Jufra Air Base at the following coordinates: 29°11′58.18″N 16°00′26.17″E. They were reportedly replaced by Su-24s.[29]
Iraq used its Tu-22s in the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, with offensive operations starting on the first day of the war, when a Tu-22 based at H-3 Air Base struck an Iranian fuel depot at Mehrabad International Airport, Tehran,
which in conjunction with other Iraqi attacks resulted in a shortage of
aviation fuel for the Iranians in the early period of the war.[30]
Otherwise, these early attacks caused were relatively ineffective, with
many raids being aborted owing to Iranian air defences and operations
being disrupted by heavy Iranian air strikes against Iraqi airfields
capable of handling the Tu-22.[31]
Iran claimed three Tu-22s shot down during October 1980, one shot down
over Tehran on 6 October, and two shot down on 29 October, one near Najafabad by an AIM-54 Phoenix missile launched by a F-14 interceptor and one over Qom.[32]
Iraq deployed its Tu-22s during the "War of the Cities", flying air-raids against Tehran, Isfahan and Shiraz, with these attack supplemented by Iraqi Scud and Al Hussein missiles and Iran retaliating against Iraqi cities with its own Scuds.[33][34] The Iraqi Air Force were particularly enthusiastic users of the gargantuan FAB-9000 general-purpose bomb, which skilled Tu-22 pilots could deploy with impressive accuracy, utilizing supersonic toss bombing techniques at stand-off distances and allowing the aircraft to escape retaliatory anti-aircraft fire. Usage of the FAB-9000 was so heavy that the Iraqis ran low of imported Soviet stocks and resorted to manufacturing their own version, called the Nassir-9.[28][35]
Iraqi Tu-22s were also deployed in the last stages of the "Tanker War". On 19 March 1988, four Tu-22s together with six Mirage F.1s carried out a raid against Iranian operated oil tankers near Kharg Island, with the Tu-22s sinking one supertanker and setting another on fire, while Exocet missiles from the Mirages damaged another tanker.[20][36] A second strike against Kharg Island later the same day was less successful, encountering alerted Iranian defences, with two Tu-22s being shot down together with several other Iraqi aircraft. These were the final operations carried out by Iraq's Tu-22s during the Iran–Iraq war, with total Iraqi losses during the war being seven Tu-22s, with several more badly damaged.[20][36] The remaining Iraqi Tu-22s were destroyed by American air attacks during the 1991 Gulf War.[37]
The Tu-22 was gradually phased out of Soviet service in favor of the more-capable Tupolev Tu-22M. At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union there were 154 remaining in service, but none are now believed to be used. More than 70 were lost in various operational accidents – a loss rate which gave the type the name among pilots of "Man eater".[citation needed]
Tupolev Tu-160
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Tu-160 | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Tupolev Tu-160 at MAKS 2007 | |
| Role | Supersonic strategic bomber and missile carrier |
| National origin | Soviet Union |
| Design group | Tupolev |
| Built by | Kazan Aircraft Production Association |
| First flight | 19 December 1981 |
| Introduction | 30 December 2005 (IOC in 1987) |
| Status | In service |
| Primary user | Russian Air Force |
| Produced | 1984–1992, 2000, 2008 |
| Number built | 35 |
Entering service in 1987, the Tu-160 was the last strategic bomber designed for the Soviet Union. 16 aircraft are in use with the Russian Air Force. A planned modernisation of 10 aircraft to Tu-160M standard has been announced.
Contents
Development
The first competition for a supersonic strategic heavy bomber was launched in the Soviet Union in 1967. In 1972, the Soviet Union launched a new multi-mission bomber competition to create a new supersonic, variable-geometry ("swing-wing") heavy bomber with a maximum speed of Mach 2.3, in response to the US Air Force B-1 bomber project. The Tupolev design, dubbed Aircraft 160M, with a lengthened flying wing layout and incorporating some elements of the Tu-144, competed against the Myasishchev M-18 and the Sukhoi T-4 designs.[1]
Tu-160 in flight
Modernization
Like many Soviet weapon systems, the Tu-160 has struggled to overcome unreliable components and a lack of maintenance during the 1990s. The original systems were faulty and required a complete rework using up-to-date computer chip and circuit systems, so that the aircraft was accepted into Russian service after testing in late 2005.[2][3] The upgrade also integrated the ability to launch a new long-range cruise missile. Although the Russians have over-stated the progress of the modernisation project, it seems to the project has been restricted by limitations of the lack to up-to-date facilities to keep aircraft flying. This resulted in 2006 of the delivery of a new-build aircraft but the "first modernised Tu-160" in July 2006 did not receive new avionics, although they were planned for the new airframe.[3][4][5] The modernisation now appears to have been split into two phases, concentrating on life extension with some communication–navigation updates to start with, followed by 10 aircraft receiving new engines and capability upgrades after 2016.[2] The first refitted aircraft was delivered to the VVS in May 2008; a contract to overhaul three aircraft in 2013 cost RUR3.4 billion (US$103m).[6][6]Although the phase I update was due to be completed by 2016, industrial limitations may delay it to 2019 or beyond.[7] There is a particular problem with the engines; although Kuznetsov designed an NK-32M engine that improved the reliability of the troublesome NK-32 engines, its successor company has struggled to deliver working units. Metallist-Samara JSC has not produced new engines for a decade and when it was given a contract in 2011 to overhaul 26 of the existing engines, it managed just four in two years.[7] There are problems with the ownership of the company and it lacks finance to build a new production line; it insists it needs an order of 20 engines per year but the government is only prepared to pay for 4-6 engines per year.[7][8] A much-improved gas generator has been bench tested but may not enter production until 2016.[2]
Design
Cockpit view
The Tu-160 is powered by four Kuznetsov NK-321 afterburning turbofan engines, the most powerful ever fitted to a combat aircraft. Unlike the American B-1B Lancer, which reduced the original Mach 2+ requirement for the B-1A to achieve a smaller radar profile, the Tu-160 retains variable intakes, and is capable of reaching Mach 2.05 speed at altitude.[9]
The Tu-160 is equipped with a probe-and-drogue in-flight refueling system for extended-range missions, although it is rarely used. The Tu-160's internal fuel capacity of 130 tons gives the aircraft a roughly 15-hour flight endurance at a cruise speed of around 850 km/h (Mach 0.77, 530 mph) at 9,145 m (30,003 ft).[10] In February 2008, Tu-160 bombers and Il-78 refueling tankers practiced air refueling during air combat exercise, as well as MiG-31, A-50 and other Russian combat aircraft.[11]
Although the Tu-160 was designed for reduced detectability to both radar and infrared, it is not a stealth aircraft. Nevertheless, Lt. Gen. Igor Khvorov claimed that Tu-160s managed to penetrate the US sector of the Arctic undetected on 25 April 2006, leading to a USAF investigation according to a Russian source.[12]
The Tu-160 has a crew of four (pilot, co-pilot, bombardier, and defensive systems operator) in K-36DM ejection seats.[citation needed]
Tupolev Tu-160 at the 2013 Moscow Victory Day parade
A demilitarized, commercial version of the Tu-160, named Tu-160SK, was displayed at Asian Aerospace in Singapore in 1994 with a model of a small space vehicle named Burlak[14] attached underneath the fuselage.
While similar in appearance to the American B-1 Lancer, the Tu-160 is a different class of combat aircraft, its primary role being a standoff missile platform (strategic missile carrier). The Tu-160 is also larger and faster than the B-1B and has a slightly greater combat range, though the B-1B has a larger combined payload.[15] Another significant difference is that the colour scheme on the B-1B Lancer is usually radar-absorbent black, the Tu-160 is painted with anti-flash white, giving it the nickname among Russian airmen "White Swan".[16]
Operational history
The Tu-160 began service in April 1987[citation needed] with the 184 Guards Bomber Regiment, based at Pryluky, Soviet Union.
Soviet officers in front of a Tupolev Tu-160 in September 1989
The Fall of the Soviet Union saw 19 aircraft stationed in the newly independent Ukraine. On 25 August 1991, the Ukrainian parliament decreed that the country would take control of all military units on its territory and a Defence Ministry was created the same day. By the mid-1990s, the Pryluky Regiment had lost its value as a combat unit. The 184th GvTBAP's 19 "Blackjacks" were effectively grounded because of a lack of technical support, spare parts and fuel. At this time, Ukraine considered the Tu-160s more of a bargaining chip in their economic negotiations with Russia. They were of very limited value to Ukraine from a military standpoint, but discussions with Russia concerning their return bogged down. The main bone of contention was the price. While Russian experts, who examined the aircraft at the Pryluky Air Base in 1993 and 1996, assessed their technical condition as good, the price of $3 billion demanded by Ukraine was unacceptable. The negotiations led to nowhere and in April 1998, Ukraine decided to commence scrapping the aircraft under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement. In November, the first Tu-160 was ostentatiously chopped up at Pryluky.[17]
In April 1999, immediately after NATO began its air attacks against Serbia, Russia resumed talks with Ukraine about the strategic bombers. This time they proposed buying back eight Tu-160s and three Tu-95MS models manufactured in 1991 (those in the best technical condition), as well as 575 Kh-55MS missiles. An agreement was finally reached and a contract valued at $285 million was signed. That figure was to be deducted from Ukraine's debt for natural gas. A group of Russian military experts went to Ukraine on 20 October 1999 to prepare the aircraft for the trip to Engels-2 air base. The first two (a Tu-160 and a Tu-95MS) departed Pryluky on 5 November. During the months that followed, the other seven "Blackjacks" were brought to Engels, with the last two arriving on 21 February 2001.[17]
Along with the re-purchase of the aircraft from Ukraine, Russia's Defence Ministry sought other ways of rebuilding the fleet at Engels. In June 1999, the Ministry placed a contract with the Kazan Aircraft Production Association for a delivery of a single, almost complete, bomber. The aircraft was the second aircraft in the eighth production batch and it arrived at Engels on 10 September. It was commissioned into service as "07" on 5 May 2000.[17]
The unit that was operating the fleet from Engels was 121st Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment. It formed up in the spring of 1992 and by 1994 it had received 6 aircraft. By the end of February 2001, the fleet stood at 15 with the addition of the eight aircraft from Ukraine and the new-build.[17] As of 2001, six additional Tu-160 have served as experimental aircraft at Zhukovski, four remaining airworthy.
On 17 August 2007, Putin announced that Russia was resuming the strategic aviation flights stopped in 1991, sending its bomber aircraft on long-range patrols.[21] On 14 September 2007, British and Norwegian fighters intercepted two Tu-160s which breached NATO airspace near the UK and Finland.[22] On 25 December 2007, two Blackjacks came close to Danish airspace, and two Danish Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcons scrambled to intercept and identify them.[23]
According to Russian government sources, on 11 September 2007, a Tu-160 was used to drop the massive fuel-air explosive device, the Father of All Bombs, for its first field test.[24] However, some military analysts expressed skepticism that the weapon was actually delivered by a Blackjack.[25]
On 28 December 2007, the first flight of a new Tu-160 was reported to have taken place following completion of the aircraft at the Kazan Aviation Plant.[26] After flight testing, the bomber joined the Russian Air Force on 29 April 2008, bringing the total number of aircraft in service to 16. One new Tu-160 is expected to be built every one to two years until the active inventory reaches 30 or more aircraft by 2025–2030.[27][28]
On 12 October 2008, a number of Tu-160 bombers were involved in the largest Russian strategic bomber exercise since 1984. A total of 12 bombers including Tu-160 Blackjack and Tu-95 Bear conducted a series of launches of their cruise missiles. Some bombers launched a full complement of their missiles. It was the first time that a Tu-160 had ever fired a full complement of missiles.[30]
Russian media reports in August 2011 claimed that only four of the VVS' sixteen Tu-160 were flight worthy.[7] By mid-2012 Flight reported eleven were combat-ready[2] and between 2011-13 eleven were photographed in flight.[32]
On 1 November 2013, Aleksandr Golovanov and Aleksandr Novikov went into Colombian airspace in two different occasions without receiving previous clearance from the Colombian Government. The Aircraft was going from Venezuela to Nicaragua and headed for Managua. The Colombian Government issued a letter of protest to the Russian Government following the first violation. Two Colombian Air Force IAI Kfirs stationed at Barranquilla intercepted and escorted the two Blackjacks out of Colombian airspace after the second violation.[33][34][35][36][37]
Variants
- Tu-160: Production version.
- Tu-160S: designation used for serial Tu-160s when needed to separate them from all the pre-production and experimental aircraft.[38]
- Tu-160V: proposed liquid hydrogen fueled version (see also Tu-155).[38]
- Tu-160 NK-74: proposed upgraded (extended range) version with NK-74 engines.[38]
- Tu-160M: upgraded version that features new weaponry, improved electronics and avionics, which double its combat effectiveness.[39] Will carry the hypersonic Kh-90 (3M25 Meteorit-A) missiles.
- Tu-160P (Tu-161): proposed very long-range escort fighter/interceptor version.
- Tu-160PP: proposed electronic warfare version carrying stand-off jamming and ECM gear (Russian: ПП – постановщик помех).
- Tu-160R: proposed strategic reconnaissance version.
- Tu-160SK: proposed commercial version, designed to launch satellites within the "Burlak" (Russian: Бурлак, "hauler") system.[38]
Operators
- Russian Air Force - 16 were in service (12 combat and four in training) as of April 2008,[40] with the 121st Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment at Engels/Saratov.[41] As of 2013, 11 Tu-160s are combat-ready.[42]
Former
- Ukrainian Air Force inherited 19 Tu-160s from the former Soviet Union, and subsequently handed over eight Tu-160s to Russia as exchange for debt relief in 1999; the remainder were scrapped under the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction agreement led by the US.[43][verification needed]
- 1 in museum of the strategic aviation in Poltava[44]
- Soviet Air Force (transferred to Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces in 1991)
- 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment (TBAP), Pryluky, Ukrainian SSR
Specifications (Tu-160)
Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2003–2004,[13]
General characteristics- Crew: 4 (pilot, co-pilot, bombardier, defensive systems operator)
- Length: 54.10 m (177 ft 6 in)
- Wingspan:
- Spread (20° sweep): 55.70 m (189 ft 9 in)
- Swept (65° sweep): 35.60 m (116 ft 9¾ in)
- Height: 13.10 m (43 ft 0 in)
- Wing area:
- Spread: 400 m² (4,306 ft²)
- Swept: 360 m² (3,875 ft²)
- Empty weight: 110,000 kg (242,505 lb; operating empty weight)
- Loaded weight: 267,600 kg (589,950 lb)
- Max. takeoff weight: 275,000 kg (606,260 lb)
- Powerplant: 4 × Samara NK-321 turbofans
- Dry thrust: 137.3 kN (30,865 lbf) each
- Thrust with afterburner: 245 kN (55,115 lbf) each
- Maximum speed: Mach 2.05 (2,220 km/h, 1,200 knots, 1,380 mph) at 12,200 m (40,000 ft)
- Cruise speed: Mach 0.9 (960 km/h, 518 knots, 596 mph)
- Range: 12,300 km (7,643 mi) practical range without in-flight refuelling, Mach 0.77 and carrying 6 × Kh-55SM dropped at mid range and 5% fuel reserves[45]
- Combat radius: 7,300 km[46] (3,994 nmi, 4,536 mi,) 2,000 km (1,080 nmi, 1,240 mi) at Mach 1.5[13]
- Service ceiling: 15,006 m (49,235 ft)
- Rate of climb: 70 m/s (13,860 ft/min)
- Wing loading: 742 kg/m² with wings fully swept (152 lb/ft²)
- lift-to-drag: 18.5–19, while supersonic it is above 6.[47]
- Thrust/weight: 0.37
- Two internal bays for 40,000 kg (88,185 lb) of ordnance including
- Two internal rotary launchers each holding 6× Raduga Kh-55SM/101/102 cruise missiles (primary armament) or 12× Raduga Kh-15 short-range nuclear missiles.
Convair B-58 Hustler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| B-58 Hustler | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Convair B-58A in flight, June 1967 | |
| Role | Strategic bomber |
| Manufacturer | Convair |
| First flight | 11 November 1956 |
| Introduction | 15 March 1960 |
| Retired | 31 January 1970 |
| Primary user | United States Air Force |
| Number built | 116 |
| Unit cost | |
Replacing the Boeing B-47 Stratojet medium bomber, it was originally intended to fly at high altitudes and supersonic speeds to avoid Soviet fighters. The B-58 received a great deal of notoriety due to its sonic boom, which was often heard by the public as it passed overhead in supersonic flight.[4]
The introduction of highly accurate Soviet surface-to-air missiles forced the B-58 into a low-level penetration role that severely limited its range and strategic value, and it was never employed to deliver conventional bombs. This led to a brief operational career between 1960 and 1970, when the B-58 was succeeded by the smaller, swing-wing FB-111A.[5]
Contents
Design and development
Ejection pod undergoing testing
Building on Convair's experience of earlier delta-wing fighters, beginning with the XF-92A, a series of GEBO II designs were developed, initially studying swept and semi-delta configurations, but settling on the delta wing planform. The final Convair proposal, coded FZP-110, was a radical two-place, delta wing bomber design powered by General Electric J53 engines. The performance estimates included a 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h; 870 kt) speed and a 3,000 statute mile (4,800 km; 2,600 nmi) range.[6]
RB-58A with two component pod (TCP)
The resulting B-58 design was the first "true" USAF supersonic bomber program. The Convair design was based on a delta wing with a leading-edge sweep of 60° with four General Electric J79-GE-1 turbojet engines, capable of flying at twice the speed of sound. Although its large wing made for relatively low wing loading, it proved to be surprisingly well suited for low-altitude, high-speed flight. It seated three (pilot, bombardier/navigator, and defensive systems operator) in separated tandem cockpits. Later versions gave each crew member a novel ejection capsule that made it possible to eject at an altitude of 70,000 ft (21,000 m) at speeds up to Mach 2 (1,320 mph/2,450 km/h). Unlike standard ejection seats of the period, a protective clamshell would enclose the seat and the control stick with an attached oxygen cylinder, allowing the pilot to continue to fly even "turtled up" and ready for immediate egress. The capsule would float, and the crewmember could open the clamshell, using it as a life raft.[9][10] In an unusual test program, live bears and chimpanzees were successfully used to test the ejection system.[11] The XB-70 would use a similar system (though using capsules of a different design).
B-58 crewmember escape capsule
Convair YB-58A-1-CF Hustler, (AF Ser. No. 55-0661), the second aircraft built
The pilot's cockpit was fairly conventional for a large multiengine aircraft.[13] The electronic controls were ambitious and advanced for the day. The navigator and DSO's cockpits featured wraparound dashboards with warning lights and buttons, and automatic voice messages and warnings from a tape system were audible through the helmet sets. Research during the era of all-male combat aircraft assignments revealed that a woman's voice was more likely to gain the attention of young men in distracting situations. Nortronics Division of Northrop Corporation selected actress and singer Joan Elms to record the automated voice warnings. To the men flying the B-58, the voice was known as "Sexy Sally."[14][15]
The Sperry AN/ASQ-42 bombing/navigation system combined sophisticated inertial navigation with the KS-39 astro-tracker to provide heading reference, the AN/APN-113 Doppler radar to provide ground velocity and windspeed data, a search radar to provide range data for bomb release and trajectory, and a radio altimeter.[16] The AN/ASQ-42 was estimated to be 10 times more accurate than any previous bombing/navigation system.[16]
Defensive armament consisted of a single 20 mm (0.79 in) T-171E-3 rotary cannon with 1,200 rounds of ammunition in a radar-aimed tail barbette.[16][17] It was remotely controlled through the Emerson MD-7 automated radar fire control system only requiring the DSO to lock-on a selected target blip on his scope and then fire the gun; the system computing all aiming, velocity or heading differential, and range compensation.[16] Offensive armament typically consisted of a single nuclear weapon, along with fuel tanks, in a streamlined MB-1C pod under the fuselage. Incurable difficulties with fuel leakage resulted in the replacement of the MB-1C with the TCP (Two Component Pod), which placed the nuclear weapon in an upper section while the lower fuel component could be independently jettisoned.[18] This had the added benefit of allowing the pilot to "clean up" the aircraft for fuel efficiency or in case of emergency, while still retaining the (somewhat) more slim weapon.
The first prototype, serial number 55-660, was completed in late August 1956.[19] The first flight took place in November 1956.[20] A difficult and protracted flight test program involving 30 aircraft continued until April 1959.[21] The final B-58 was delivered in October 1962.[21]
From 1961 to 1963, the B-58 was retrofitted with two tandem stub pylons under each wing root, adjacent to the centreline pod,[22] for B43 or B61 nuclear weapons for a total of five nuclear weapons per aircraft. Although the USAF explored the possibility of using the B-58 for the conventional strike role, it was never equipped for carrying or dropping conventional bombs in service. A photo reconnaissance pod, the LA-331, was also fielded. Several other specialized pods for ECM or an early cruise missile were considered, but not adopted. The late 1950s WS-199C High Virgo air-launched ballistic missile was designed to be launched from the B-58 with four test launches of the High Virgo carried out by a B-58 to determine ballistic missile and anti-satellite system capability.[23]
Operational history
B-58A in flight
The B-58 set no less than 19 world speed records, including coast-to-coast records, and one for longest supersonic flight in history, 8024 miles between Tokyo and London. The aircraft was completely stock, serving in an operational unit, and had not been modified in any way besides being washed and waxed. One of the goals of the flight was to push the limit of its new honeycomb construction technique. The speed of the flight was limited only by the speed at which they believed the honeycomb panels would delaminate.[26]
In addition to its much smaller weapons load and more limited range than the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the B-58 had also been extremely expensive to acquire. Through FY 1961, the total cost of the B-58 program was $3 billion.[27] A highly complex aircraft, it also required considerable maintenance, much of which required specialized equipment and ground personnel. For comparison, the average maintenance cost per flying hour for the B-47 was $361, for the B-52 it was $1,025 and for the B-58 it was $1,440. This high running cost, coupled with the changed circumstances of its penetration role from high to low level, with the reduced range, were major factors contributing to its short operational lifespan of only 10 years.[28]
The B-58 also cost three times as much to operate as the B-52.[29] This included special maintenance issues with the nose landing gear, which retracted in a complicated fashion to avoid the center payload. Further compounding these issues, the B-58 had an unfavorably high accident rate: 26 B-58 aircraft were lost in accidents, 22.4% of total production. Most notably, the B-58 was very difficult to safely recover from in the loss of an engine at supersonic cruise due to differential thrust. The SAC senior leadership had been dubious about the aircraft type from the beginning, although its crews eventually became enthusiastic about the aircraft. While its performance and design were exceptional and appreciated, it was never easy to fly.
Two SAC bomb wings operated the B-58 during its operational service: the 43d Bombardment Wing, based at Carswell AFB, Texas from 1960 to 1964, and Little Rock AFB, Arkansas from 1964 to 1970; and the 305th Bombardment Wing, based at Bunker Hill AFB (later Grissom AFB), Indiana from 1961 to 1970. The 305th also operated the B-58 combat crew training school (CCTS), the predecessor of the USAF's current formal training units (FTUs).
XB-58 prototype during takeoff
By the time the early problems had largely been resolved and SAC interest in the bomber had solidified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that the B-58 was not going to be a viable weapon system. It was during the B-58's introduction that high-altitude Russian surface-to-air missile (SAM) became a viable threat, especially the SA-2 Guideline, a SAM system the Soviet Union extensively deployed. The "solution" to this problem was to fly at low altitudes, minimizing the radar line-of-sight and reducing exposure time.
Because of the denser air at low altitudes, the B-58 could not fly at supersonic speeds and its moderate range was reduced further, thereby negating the high-speed performance the design paid so dearly for. In late 1965, Secretary McNamara ordered the B-58's retirement by 1970. Despite efforts of the Air Force to earn a reprieve, the phaseout proceeded on schedule. The last B-58s were retired in January 1970 and placed in storage in AMARC at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. The fleet survived until 1977, when nearly all remaining aircraft were sold to Southwestern Alloys for disposal.[31] The B-58 as a weapons system was replaced by the FB-111A, designed for low-altitude attack, more flexible with the carriage of conventional weapons, and less expensive to produce and maintain.
A total of 116 B-58s were produced: 30 trial aircraft and 86 production B-58A models. Most of the trial aircraft were later upgraded to operational standard. Eight were equipped as TB-58A training aircraft.
A number of B-58s were used for special trials, including testing the radar system intended for the Lockheed YF-12 interceptor. Several improved (and usually enlarged) variants, dubbed B-58B and B-58C by the manufacturer, were proposed but never built.
Singer John Denver's father, Colonel Henry J. Deutschendorf, Sr., USAF, held several speed records as a B-58 pilot.[32]
Variants
- XB-58: Prototype. Two built.
- YB-58A: Pre-production aircraft, 11 built.
- B-58A: Three-seat medium-range strategic bomber aircraft, 86 built.
- TB-58A: Training aircraft, eight conversions from YB-58A.
- NB-58A: This designation was given to a YB-58A, which was used for testing the J93 engine. The engine was originally intended for the North American XB-70 Valkyrie Mach 3 bomber.
- RB-58A: Variant with ventral reconnaissance pod, 17 built.
- B-58B: Unbuilt version. SAC planned to order 185 of these improved bombers; canceled due to budgetary considerations. The B variant was planned to be the "mothership" for a Mach 4 parasite called the FISH (for First Invisible Super Hustler). It was to be faster and larger than the original B-58 so that it could carry the additional parasite aircraft instead of the external pod. At an altitude of at least 35,000 feet (11,000 metres) at speeds in excess of Mach 2 the FISHs three ramjet engines could be started.[33] The Super Hustler would then disengage from the B-58B and climb up to 90,000 feet (27,000 metres) and accelerate to Mach 4.2 to complete its mission.[34][35]
- B-58C: Unbuilt version. Enlarged version with more fuel and 32,500 lbf (145 kN) J58, the same engine used on the Lockheed SR-71. Design studies were conducted with two and four engine designs, the C model had an estimated top speed approaching Mach 3, a supersonic cruise capability of approximately Mach 2, and a service ceiling of about 70,000 ft (21,300 m) along with the capability of carrying conventional bombs. Convair estimated maximum range at 5,200 nautical miles (6,000 mi; 9,600 km). The B-58C was proposed as a lower cost alternative to the North American XB-70. As enemy defenses against high-speed, high-altitude penetration bombers improved, the value of the B-58C diminished and the program was canceled in early 1961.[36]
Operators
United States Air Force- 43d Bombardment Wing - Carswell AFB, Texas (1960-1964); Little Rock AFB, Arkansas (1964-1970)
-
- 63d Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- 64th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- 65th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- 3958th Operational Test and Evaluation Squadron (1958-1960)
- 305th Bombardment Wing - Bunker Hill (later Grissom AFB), Indiana (1961-1970)
-
- 364th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- 365th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- 366th Bombardment Squadron, Medium
- Air Force Flight Test Center - Edwards AFB, California (1956-58)
- 6592d Test Squadron
Aircraft on display
B-58A Hustler (AF Serial No. 59-2458), the "Cowtown Hustler," in front of the National Museum of the United States Air Force's restoration facility at Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
- TB-58A
- 55-0663 - Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base (former Bunker Hill AFB/former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana. This is the oldest remaining aircraft and the fourth B-58 built.[39]
- 55-0668 - Little Rock Air Force Base in Jacksonville, Arkansas.[40]
- YB-58A
- 55-0665 (Snoopy) - Edwards Air Force Base, California. This aircraft is a photo target on the Edwards AFB range and is in extremely poor condition.[41][42]
- 55-0666 - Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum (former Chanute AFB), Rantoul, Illinois.[43]
- B-58A
- 59-2437 (Firefly II) - Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex (former Kelly Air Force Base), San Antonio, Texas.[44]
- 59-2458 (Cowtown Hustler) - National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft flew from Los Angeles to New York and back on 5 March 1962, setting three separate speed records, and earning the crew the Bendix Trophy and the Mackay Trophy for 1962. The aircraft was flown to the Museum on 1 March 1969. The aircraft is on display in the Museum's Cold War gallery.[45]
- 61-2059 (Greased Lightning) - Strategic Air and Space Museum near Ashland, Nebraska. It averaged 938 nmph flying 8,028 nmi. from Tokyo to London in 8 hr, 35 min.[46]
- 61-2080 - Pima Air & Space Museum (adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base) in Tucson, Arizona. It was the last B-58 to be delivered.[47]
Specifications (B-58A)
Original combined expendable underbelly fuel and weapon pod
A front view of the B-58A in the "clean" configuration
Cutaway diagram of the J79 with components labeled
Cutaway of an air start system of a General Electric J79 turbojet. The small turbine and epicyclic gearing are clearly visible.
Data from Quest for Performance[48]
General characteristics- Crew: 3: pilot; observer (navigator, radar operator, bombardier); defense system operator (DSO; electronic countermeasures operator and pilot assistant).
- Length: 96 ft 10 in[49] (29.5 m)
- Wingspan: 56 ft 9 in[49] (17.3 m)
- Height: 29 ft 11 in (8.9 m)
- Wing area: 1,542 ft² (143.3 m²)
- Airfoil: NACA 0003.46-64.069 root, NACA 0004.08-63 tip
- Empty weight: 55,560 lb (25,200 kg)
- Loaded weight: 67,871 lb (30,786 kg)
- Max. takeoff weight: 176,890 lb (80,240 kg)
- Powerplant: 4 × General Electric J79-GE-5A turbojet
- Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0068
- Drag area: 10.49 ft² (0.97 m²)
- Aspect ratio: 2.09
- Maximum speed: Mach 2.0[49] (1,319mph) at 40,000 ft (12,000 m)
- Cruise speed: 610 mph (530 kn, 985 km/h)
- Combat radius: 1,740 mi (1,510 nmi, 3,220 km)
- Ferry range: 4,100 nmi (4,700 mi, 7,600 km)
- Service ceiling: 63,400 ft (19,300 m)
- Rate of climb: 17,400 ft/min (88 m/s) at gross weight[50]
- Wing loading: 44.0 lb/ft² (215 kg/m²)
- Thrust/weight: 0.919 lbf/lb
- Lift-to-drag ratio: 11.3 (without weapons/fuel pod)
- Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.79 in) T171 cannon[49]
- Bombs: 4× B43 or B61 nuclear bombs; maximum weapons load was 19,450 lb (8,820 kg)
- AN/APB-2 Bombing radar[51]
- AN/APN-110 Doppler navigational radar[52] (part of Sperry AN/ASQ-42 Navigation & Bombing System)[53]
- AN/APN-170 Terrain-following radar[52]
- AN/APR-12 Radar warning receiver[54]
- Hughes Aircraft AN/APQ-69 podded side-looking aperture radar (mounted on RB-58A)[55]
- Goodyear AN/APS-73 podded synthetic aperture radar (mounted on RB-58A)[54]
Notable appearances in media
Jimmy Stewart, a bomber pilot during World War II and the early cold war period, made a film for the Air Force, flying in the back seat of the B-58 on a typical low-altitude attack in the film B-58 Champion of Champions.[56]The B-58 has also appeared in the 1964 film Fail-Safe, where stock footage of B-58s was used to represent the fictional "Vindicator" bombers which attacked Moscow. Interestingly, the art used in the original magazine publication of the novel had depicted the "Vindicator" bombers—itself the recycling of the name of a World War II American dive bomber—as almost identical to B-58s but equipped with canards.[57]
In Fail Safe, a 2000 made-for-TV remake starring George Clooney, the fictional Vindicator bomber was again represented by the B-58 Hustler.
Tupolev Tu-22
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the swing-wing bomber, see Tupolev Tu-22M.
| Tu-22 | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Tu-22 at the Monino Russian Federation Air Force Museum | |
| Role | Medium bomber |
| Manufacturer | Tupolev |
| First flight | 7 September 1959 |
| Introduction | 1962 |
| Retired | 1998 (Russia) |
| Primary users | Soviet Air Force Ukrainian Air Force Libyan Air Force Iraqi Air Force |
| Produced | 1960–1969 |
| Number built | 311 |
| Developed into | Tupolev Tu-22M |
Contents
Development
The Tu-22 was intended originally as a supersonic replacement for the Tupolev Tu-16 bomber. Preliminary design of an aircraft to meet this requirement, designated Samolët 105 by Tupolev, was started in 1954, with the first prototype completed in December 1957, and making its maiden flight from Zhukovsky on 21 June 1958, flown by test pilot Yuri Alasheev.[1][2] The availability of more powerful engines, and the TsAGI discovery of the Area rule for minimizing transonic drag, resulted in the construction of a revised prototype, the 105A. This first flew on 7 September 1959.[3]The first serial-production Tu-22B bomber, built by Factory No. 22 at Kazan, flew on 22 September 1960,[4] and the type was presented to the public in the Tushino Aviation Day parade on 9 July 1961, with a flypast of 10 aircraft.[5] It initially received the NATO reporting name 'Bullshot', which was deemed to be inappropriate, then 'Beauty', which was deemed to be too complimentary, and finally the 'Blinder'. Soviet crews called it "shilo" (awl) because of its shape.[4]
Tu-22 Blinder landing
Pilots for the first Tu-22 squadrons were selected from the ranks of "First Class" Tu-16 pilots, which made transition into the new aircraft difficult, as the Tu-16 had a co-pilot, and many of the "elite" Tu-16 pilots selected had become accustomed to allowing their co-pilots to handle all the flight operations of the Tu-16 except for take-off and landings. As a consequence, Tu-16 pilots transitioning to the single-pilot Tu-22 suddenly found themselves having to perform all the piloting tasks, and in a much more complicated cockpit. Many, if not most of these pilots were unable to complete their training for this reason. Eventually, pilots were selected from the ranks of the Su-17 "Fitter" crews, and these pilots made the transition with less difficulty.
By the time that the Tu-22B (Blinder-A) entered service, it was already obvious that its operational usefulness was limited. Despite its speed, it was inferior to the Tu-16 with respect to combat radius, weapon load, and serviceability. Soviet president Nikita Khrushchev believed that ballistic missiles were the way of the future, and bombers like the Tu-22 were in danger of cancellation.[6] As a result, only 15[4] (some sources say 20) Tu-22Bs were built.
A combat-capable reconnaissance version, the Tu-22R ('Blinder-C'), was developed along with the bomber, entering service in 1962. The Tu-22R could be fitted with an aerial refueling probe that was subsequently fitted to most Tu-22s, expanding their radius of operation. 127 Tu-22Rs were built, 62 of which went to the AVMF for maritime reconnaissance use.[7] Some of these aircraft were stripped of their camera and sensor packs and sold for export as Tu-22Bs, although in other respects they apparently remained more comparable to the Tu-22R than to the early-production Tu-22Bs.[8]
A trainer version of the 'Blinder,' the Tu-22U ('Blinder-D'), was fielded at the same time; it had a raised cockpit for an instructor pilot. The Tu-22U had no tail guns, and was not combat-capable. Forty six were produced.[9]
To try to salvage some offensive combat role for the Tu-22 in the face of official hostility, the Tu-22 was developed as a missile carrier, the Tu-22K ('Blinder-B'), with the ability to carry a single Raduga Kh-22 (AS-4 'Kitchen') stand-off missile in a modified weapons bay. The Tu-22K was deployed both by DA (Strategic Aviation), and AVMF (Naval Aviation).[10]
The last Tu-22 subtype was the Tu-22P ('Blinder-E') electronic warfare version, initially used for ELINT electronic intelligence gathering. Some were converted to serve as stand-off ECM jammers to support Tu-22K missile carriers. One squadron was usually allocated to each Tu-22 regiment.[11]
The Tu-22 was upgraded in service with more powerful engines, in-flight refueling (for those aircraft that did not initially have it), and better electronics. The -D suffix (for Dalni, long-range) denotes aircraft fitted for aerial refueling.
Tu-22s were exported to Iraq and Libya during the 1970s. An Egyptian request was refused as a result of Soviet objections to the Yom Kippur War.[8]
Design
The Tu-22 has a low-middle mounted wing swept at an angle of 55°.[12] The two large turbojet engines, originally 159 kN (35,273 lbf) Dobrinin VD-7M, later 162 kN (36,375 lbf) Kolesov RD-7M2,[13] are mounted atop the rear fuselage on either side of the large vertical stabilizer, with a low mounted tailplane. Continuing a Tupolev OKB design feature, the main landing gear are mounted in pods at the trailing edge of each wing. The very swept wings gave little drag at transonic speeds, but resulted in very fast landing speeds and a long take-off run.[14][15]
A parked Tupolev Tu-22.
The Tu-22's defensive armament, operated by the weapons officer, consisted of a tail turret beneath the engine pods, containing a single 23mm R-23 gun.[17] The turret was directed by a small PRS-3A 'Argon' gun-laying radar to compensate for the weapons officer's lack of rear visibility.[3] The bomber's main weapon load was carried in a fuselage bomb bay between the wings, capable of carrying up to 24 FAB-500 general-purpose bombs, one FAB-9000 bomb, or various free-fall nuclear weapons.[4] On the Tu-22K, the bay was reconfigured to carry one Raduga Kh-22 (AS-4 'Kitchen') missile semi-recessed beneath the fuselage. The enormous weapon was big enough to have a substantial effect on handling and performance, and was also a safety hazard.[18]
The early Tu-22B had an optical bombing system (which was retained by the Tu-22R), with a Rubin-1A nav/attack radar.[9] The Tu-22K had the Leninets PN (NATO reporting name 'Down Beat') to guide the Kh-22 missile.[18] The Tu-22R could carry a camera array or an APP-22 jammer pack in the bomb bay as an alternative to bombs.[9] Some Tu-22Rs were fitted with the Kub ELINT system, and later with an under-fuselage palette for M-202 Shompol side looking airborne radar, as well as cameras and an infrared line-scanner. A small number of Tu-22Ks were modified to Tu-22KP or Tu-22KPD configuration with Kurs-N equipment to detect enemy radar systems and give compatibility with the Kh-22P anti-radiation missile.[13]
Operational history
Libya
The Libyan Arab Republic Air Force (LARAF) used the Tu-22 in combat against Tanzania in 1979 as part of the Uganda–Tanzania War to help its Ugandan allies, with a single Tu-22 flying a completely unsuccessful bombing mission against the town of Mwanza on 29 March 1979.[19]
A U.S. Navy F-4N intercepts Tu-22s being delivered to Libya in 1977.
Fighting restarted in July 1983, with Libyan air power, including its Tu-22s, being used in attacks against forces loyal to Habré, before a further ceasefire stopped the fighting until Libyan-assisted forces began a fresh offensive in early 1986. On 17 February 1986, in retaliation for the French Operation Épervier (which had hit the runway of the Libyan Ouadi Doum Airbase one day earlier), a single LARAF Tu-22B attacked the airfield at N'Djamena. Staying under French radar coverage by flying low over the desert for more than 1,127 km (700 mi), it accelerated to over Mach 1, climbed to 5,030 m (16,503 ft) and dropped three heavy bombs. Despite the considerable speed and height, the attack was extremely precise: two bombs hit the runway, one demolished the taxiway, and the airfield remained closed for several hours as a consequence.[22][23] The bomber ran into technical problems on its return journey. U.S. early warning reconnaissance planes based in Sudan monitored distress calls sent by the pilot of the Tu-22 that probably crashed before reaching its base at Aouzou (maybe hit by twin-tubes that fired in N'Djamena airport).[24] On 19 February, another LARAF Tu-22 attempted to bomb N'Djamena once again. This time, a patrol of French Air Force Mirage F1Cs was waiting for him. The Tu-22 is intercepted and shot down 110 kilometers off Chad's capital city. [25] One bomber was shot down by captured 2K12 Kub (SA-6) surface-to-air missiles during a bombing attack on an abandoned Libyan base at Aouzou on 8 August 1987.[26][27] One eyewitness report suggests that the pilot ejected but his parachute was seen on fire.
Another Blinder was lost on the morning of 7 September 1987, when two Tu-22Bs conducted a strike against N'Djamena. This time, French air defenses were ready and a battery of MIM-23 Hawk SAMs of the 402nd Air Defence Regiment shot down one of the bombers, killing the East German crew.[27][28] This raid was the last involvement of the Tupolev Tu-22 with the Libyan-Chadian conflict.
The last flight of a Libyan Blinder was recorded on 7 September 1992. They are probably now unserviceable because of a lack of spare parts, although seven are visible at the Al Jufra Air Base at the following coordinates: 29°11′58.18″N 16°00′26.17″E. They were reportedly replaced by Su-24s.[29]
Iraq
Iraq deployed its Tu-22s during the "War of the Cities", flying air-raids against Tehran, Isfahan and Shiraz, with these attack supplemented by Iraqi Scud and Al Hussein missiles and Iran retaliating against Iraqi cities with its own Scuds.[33][34] The Iraqi Air Force were particularly enthusiastic users of the gargantuan FAB-9000 general-purpose bomb, which skilled Tu-22 pilots could deploy with impressive accuracy, utilizing supersonic toss bombing techniques at stand-off distances and allowing the aircraft to escape retaliatory anti-aircraft fire. Usage of the FAB-9000 was so heavy that the Iraqis ran low of imported Soviet stocks and resorted to manufacturing their own version, called the Nassir-9.[28][35]
Iraqi Tu-22s were also deployed in the last stages of the "Tanker War". On 19 March 1988, four Tu-22s together with six Mirage F.1s carried out a raid against Iranian operated oil tankers near Kharg Island, with the Tu-22s sinking one supertanker and setting another on fire, while Exocet missiles from the Mirages damaged another tanker.[20][36] A second strike against Kharg Island later the same day was less successful, encountering alerted Iranian defences, with two Tu-22s being shot down together with several other Iraqi aircraft. These were the final operations carried out by Iraq's Tu-22s during the Iran–Iraq war, with total Iraqi losses during the war being seven Tu-22s, with several more badly damaged.[20][36] The remaining Iraqi Tu-22s were destroyed by American air attacks during the 1991 Gulf War.[37]
Soviet Union
The only Soviet combat use of the Tu-22 occurred in 1988, during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Radar-jamming Tu-22PD aircraft covered Tu-22M bombers operating in Afghanistan near the Pakistan border, protecting the strike aircraft against Pakistani air defence activity.The Tu-22 was gradually phased out of Soviet service in favor of the more-capable Tupolev Tu-22M. At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union there were 154 remaining in service, but none are now believed to be used. More than 70 were lost in various operational accidents – a loss rate which gave the type the name among pilots of "Man eater".[citation needed]
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